The New Perspective on Paul is a way of reinterpreting the Apostle's New Testament letters, which lifts them out of the "Old Perspective" paradigm, as characterized by Protestant theology, and relocates them into a different theological framework.
Leaders of the New Perspective include New Testament scholars N.T. Wright (1948-present; former bishop of Durham) and James D.G. Dunn (1939-present; former professor of theology at the University of Durham). The work of Wright and Dunn build upon the research of E.P. Sanders (1935-present; professor of religion at Duke University). Although Wright, Dunn, and Sanders, are the most well-known scholars associated with the New Perspective, there are many others.
While the subject is often called "The New Perspective on Paul" (singular), it's more precise to speak of "perspectives" (plural), because there is not uniform agreement among those who challenge the Old Perspective. New Perspective scholars disagree with each other just as often as they do with Old Perspective scholars.
Also noteworthy is that New Perspectivism doesn't question other tenets of orthodox Christianity such as the person of Christ or the Holy Spirit. Its proposed corrections are limited to the meaning of certain Pauline teachings, which have implications for other categories of biblical theology.
Many critics of the New Perspective come from the Reformed wing of Protestant Christianity including D.A. Carson (1946-present, scholar and research professor at Trinity Evangelical Divinity School), John Piper (1946-present, theologian and pastor), and Ligon Duncan (1960-present, Presbyterian scholar and pastor).
Most critics don't challenge all aspects of the New Perspective and even express gratitude for certain contributions New Perspective scholars have made to biblical studies. Examples include the Old Perspective scholar Simon Gathercole (lecturer in New Testament studies at Cambridge University) - who studied under Dunn - who is appreciative of how the New Perspective underscores God's worldwide purpose in Christ given that Jews and Gentiles are justified in the same way. Another example of gratitude is Thomas Schreiner (1954-present, professor of New Testament interpretation at Southern Baptist Theological Seminary) who is thankful for, among other things, Wright's conservative work on the historical Jesus.
The Background
While there have been New Testament scholars prior to the twentieth century who questioned Protestant interpretations of Pauline literature, two twentieth-century books served as a catalyst for New Perspective scholars.
Krister Stendahl's 1960 essay, "The Apostle Paul and the Introspective Conscience of the West" (first published in Swedish), was translated into English and appeared in the 1963 book, Paul Among Jews and Gentiles. In the essay, Stendahl challenged the Reformation's understanding of the doctrine of justification by faith alone, positing that the Pauline doctrine of salvation included a works component. As a result, New Perspective theologians don't believe that Paul argues against works in general as a necessary part of salvation, but only certain works.
Then Sanders' 1977 book, Paul and Palestinian Judaism, led some New Testament scholars to amend their understanding of Pauline thought in ways previously unconsidered. In the book, Sanders argues that first-century Judaism was not a works-based salvation like Protestantism teaches. On the contrary, first-century Judaism had a Pauline understanding of grace, a fact misunderstood by Reformation theologians, that conjoined with works.
Dunn coined the phrase "The New Perspective on Paul" in a 1982 lecture he delivered on the subject.
Many Old Perspective scholars use a summary description articulated by Douglas Moo (1950-present, professor of New Testament at Wheaton College) in his criticism of Wright's New Perspective arguments, as a way to summarize the methodological differences between the camps:
"Wright backgrounds what the New Testament foregrounds,
and foregrounds what the New Testament backgrounds."
In other words, the Old Perspective accuses the New Perspective of promoting what Paul makes secondary and demoting what he makes primary. For example, the New Perspective defines justification as being united as Jews and Gentiles under the new covenant in Christ. The Old Perspective contends that ethnic inclusion is a result of justification, not its means. Justification, according to Protestant theology, is the process by which God enables a sinner to come into a right relationship with Him through Christ.
The Issues
There are multiple points raised by New Perspective scholars including, but not limited to, the following:
Imputation or Inclusion
Summary: Certain New Perspective scholars contend that the Pauline term "justification" is the result of a sinner being made right with God and refers to their inclusion into God's covenant community. The Old Perspective contends it refers to the process by which a sinner is made right with God, which includes the transfer, or"imputation," of Christ's righteousness to the individual.
The New Perspective: Wright posits that the Pauline term "justification" isn't the means by which a person is made right with God, but a sign that they already are. "Justification," he writes, "is the doctrine which insists that all those who have this faith belong as full members of this family, on this basis and no other." Wright elaborates,
'Justification’ in the first century was not about how someone might establish a relationship with God. It was about God’s eschatological definition, both future and present, of who was, in fact, a member of his people. In Sanders’ terms, it was not so much about ‘getting in,’ or indeed about ‘staying in,’ as about ‘how you could tell who was in.’ In standard Christian theological language, it wasn’t so much about soteriology as about ecclesiology; not so much about salvation as about the church.
Justification, Wright argues, is the declaration of being in right relationship with God.
The Old Perspective: Old Perspective theologians believe the Pauline word "justification" refers to the means by which sinners are made right with God, as opposed to being merely being an announcement of a person's inclusion into the people of God. Wright rejects the idea that God justifies the sinner through transferring, or "imputing," Christ's righteousness to them, but that the sinner is just declared righteous as a covenant member.
One critic of the New Perspective contrasts Paul and Wright with the following table:
Romans 4:5
Paul "faith is reckoned as righteousness" (KJV)
N.T. Wright faith is a badge of covenant membership
Gathercole elaborates,
At its core, the doctrine of justification says that sinners can be miraculously reckoned righteous before God. This happens for all who believe and has nothing to do with observance of the law, which for sinners is impossible. With this foundation in place, we can move on to see how Paul uses the doctrine of justification by faith. The new perspective rightly observes that Paul uses justification to argue that Gentile Christians need not take on the yoke of the law (Galatians) and that Jewish Christians and Gentile Christians should live together in harmony (Romans 14-15). While we must not neglect these demands, we should not allow the tail to wag the dog.
Grace Alone or Grace and Works
Summary: The controversy over this matter centers upon the Pauline phrases "works" and "works of the law." Some New Perspective scholars, like Sanders and Dunn, reject the notion that Paul's railing against "works" was in relation to earning God's favor, as Protestant theology contends. Rather, "works" refers to what Dunn calls "badges" or "boundary markers," like circumcision, of the covenant community, which included Jews and Gentiles.
The New Perspective: The New Testament teaching on grace is a component to New Perspective scholarship that steps from, what could be called, New Perspectives on Judaism, which are subsequently applied to Pauline teachings. Leading New Perspective scholars, such as Sanders and Wright, contend that first-century Judaism was actually a religion of grace in Paul's day, not a religion of works like is traditionally understood in Protestant circles.
In particular, Sanders argues that Paul's emphasis on grace was in alignment with Judaism's teaching on the subject not in contrast to it. Wright agrees with Sanders in that he says readers misjudge first-century Judaism if they believe it was a works-based religion void of the component of grace.
New Perspective scholars further postulate that after his conversion, Paul wasn't fighting legalism as Luther taught, but that he was attempting to gather both Jew and Gentile inside the Abrahamic Covenant (see Genesis 12:1-3). When Paul criticized the Jews for following the "works" of the law, New Perspective scholars contend that he was arguing against national "boundary markers," like circumcision, which separated them from Gentiles, thereby working against the inclusive nature of the new covenant in Christ.
Paul, then, was not arguing against works in general as a component to salvation. He was emphasizing doing away with the specific works that disunited Jews and Gentiles.
Sanders coined the phrase "covenant nomism" (nomism is Greek for "law") to describe how first-century Jews approached the Law. Covenant nomism is that which Paul sought to correct, according to the New Perspective because "there is no Greek or Jew, circumcised or uncircumcised, barbarian, Scythian, slave or free, but Christ is all, and is in all" (Colossians 3:11). If first-century Judaism's emphasis on obedience wasn't in relation to works-based righteousness, then works-based righteousness wasn't what Paul was arguing against in his epistles.
Therefore, New Perspectivism calls into question hallmark doctrines of the Protestant Reformation such as grace alone and faith alone, which are doctrinal responses to works-based religious systems.
The Old Perspective: Old Perspective scholars contend that Paul teaches that salvation requires divine intervention, a fact which first-century Judaism largely neglected. An example that Old Perspective scholars cite of Judaism's collective approach to salvation through works is from 2 Baruch (circa late first-century to early second-century):
"Miracles, however, will appear at their own time to those who are saved by their works."
While the New Perspective holds to the forgiveness of sin through the blood of Christ, complimented by certain works, the Old Perspective rejects the idea that human effort is in any way necessary for forgiveness.
It should also be noted that Reformation theology doesn't deny the importance of good works, but it argues that obedience is an effect of salvation, not the means of it.
The Results of the Discussion
While discussions on the Old and New Perspective are primarily taking place in academic circles, they have reached the church. One Protestant denomination even instructed their pastors that if they supported the New Perspective on Paul, to report to the leadership, since it's not in harmony with their doctrinal beliefs.
Catholic and Orthodox Christianity has largely been supportive of the New Perspective since it aligns closely with their understanding of Paul. Taylor Marshall, a former Protestant, turned Catholic, writes,
N.T. Wright is a good enough biblical theologian to realize that Paul didn’t teach personal salvation by way of an imputation of an alien righteousness. That’s why the Anglican bishop has received so much attention – he’s a Protestant writing like a Catholic.
Some earnest Protestants are now scratching their heads and saying to themselves: “You know, everything we’ve always assumed that Paul taught isn’t actually articulated by Paul. Maybe it’s time to rethink the entire systematic theology that we (Protestants) erected in the 16th-17th century.”
If you buy into Wright’s covenantal realism, then you’ve already taken three steps toward the Catholic Church. Keep following the trail an[d] you’ll be Catholic. Salvation is sacramental, transformational, communal, and eschatological. Sound good? You’ve just assented to the Catholic Council of Trent.
It’s almost as if Wright dug deeply into Paul’s writings until finally he came to a door. When he opened the door, to everyone’s surprise, he found that he was on the other side of Wittenburg’s door.
Some advocates of the Old Perspective have stated that the New Perspective is causing some believers to leave their Protestant churches to become Catholic. At the 2010 annual meeting of Evangelical Theological Society, the topic of which was justification and the New Perspective, Wright disputed those reports.
torsdag 6 januari 2011
Stigmata
Padre Pio showing his stigmataIn Galatians 6:17, the Apostle Paul writes, "I bear on my body the marks of the Lord Jesus" (KJV). The Greek word translated "marks" is stigmata. ("Stigmata" is plural; "stigma" is singular.) While most Bible scholars confess that they don't know the exact physical phenomena Paul was referring to, in the last 500 years the term "stigmata" refers to when a person allegedly possesses marks on his or her body, which correspond to areas where Christ's body was afflicted when he was crucified. Some recipients have reported pain with stigmata, while others haven't. The marks may be visible or invisible.
Reported cases of stigmata include people suffering from the five "Holy Wounds"; that is, one wound on each wrist or hand, one wound on each foot, and one wound on the side of the torso analogous of where Christ was pierced with a spear. Other signs of stigmata include bleeding from the forehead, analogous of Christ's crown of thorns, and sweating blood, analogous of Christ's agony in the Garden Gethsemane.
St. Francis of Assisi
St. Francis (1181-1226) was the first recorded extrabiblical case of stigmata in history. Two years before his death, St. Francis was praying during a 40-day fast when he saw a vision of an angel on a cross, who gave him the five wounds of Christ. Prior to receiving the marks, St. Francis is said to have prayed for such a sign.
"In that hour which precedes sunrise, kneeling before his hut, Francis prayed, his face turned toward the east. 'O Lord,' he pleaded, 'I beg of You two graces before I die - to experience in myself in all possible fullness the pains of Your cruel Passion, and to feel for You the same love that made You sacrifice Yourself for us.'" (Englebert)
No one else saw the angel, but several people saw, and tended to, the wounds.
"However, as the Stigmata never disappeared, a number of persons were able to see them. Among them were Brother Leo, whom Francis took as his nurse and who regularly bathed the oozing wound in his side; Brother Rufino and several others who gave sworn testimony about them; and all present at the death of the Saint or who were able to venerate him in his coffin, especially Brother Jacopa and her sons, and Sister Claire and her daughters. In addition, Pope Alexander IV, who in a sermon heard by St. Bonaventure, averred that while Francis was still alive he had seen the miraculous marks with his own eyes." (Englebert)
Click here for the Religion Facts biography of St. Francis.
Pio of Pietrelcina
Pio of Pietrelcina (1887-1968), or "Padre Pio," a Catholic priest from Italy, claims to have received the stigmata in the form of unexplainable physical wounds. In 1911, Pio wrote a letter to his spiritual advisor and said,
"Then last night something happened which I can neither explain nor understand. In the middle of the palms of my hands a red mark appeared, about the size of a penny, accompanied by acute pain in the middle of the red marks. The pain was more pronounced in the middle of the left hand, so much so that I can still feel it. Also under my feet I can feel some pain."
The bloody marks, which were said to have smelled like flowers and perfume, were tended to by doctors, including the personal physician of Pope Benedict XV. The wounds were never infected, lacked the accumulation of fluid in the surrounding tissue, and x-rays taken in 1954, showed no physical abnormalities in Pio's bone structure.
Despite allegations of faking his stigmata, the canonized Pio in 2002 under Pope John Paul II.
Other Stigmatics
The following chart summarizes other notable cases of stigmata in history.
Lived / Died
Ethnicity
Church Date of Stigmata Known For
Saint Catherine of Sienna 1347-1380 Italian Roman Catholic Unknown patron saint of Italy along with St. Francis
Rita of Cascia 1381-1457 Italian Roman Catholic Unknown wound on forehead
Lucia Brocadelli 1476-1544 Italian Roman Catholic February 25, 1496 often in a state of spiritual ecstacy
St. John of God 1495-1550 Portuguese Roman Catholic Unknown patron saint of hospitals, firefighters, alcoholics
Saint Catherine of Ricci 1522-1590 Italian Roman Catholic Unknown wore an iron chain around her neck
Marie of the Incarnation 1566-1618 French Roman Catholic Unknown St. Teresa of Avila appeared to her as an apparition
St. Veronica Giuliani 1660-1727 Italian Roman Catholic 1694 had impression of crown of thorns on her head
Blessed Anne Catherine Emmerich 1774-1824 German Roman Catholic 1813 three physicians were convinced of the genuineness of the marks
St. Gemma Galgani 1878-1903 Italian Roman Catholic June 8, 1899 claims to have spoken with Jesus, Mary, and other saints
Therese Neumann 1898-1962 German Roman Catholic March-November, 1926 is said to have only consumed the Holy Eucharist from 1922-1962
Mary Faustina Kowalska 1905-1938 Polish Roman Catholic Unknown had visions of Jesus in purgatory
Zlatko Sudac 1971-present Croatian Roman Catholic Unknown bears cross on forehead
Reported cases of stigmata include people suffering from the five "Holy Wounds"; that is, one wound on each wrist or hand, one wound on each foot, and one wound on the side of the torso analogous of where Christ was pierced with a spear. Other signs of stigmata include bleeding from the forehead, analogous of Christ's crown of thorns, and sweating blood, analogous of Christ's agony in the Garden Gethsemane.
St. Francis of Assisi
St. Francis (1181-1226) was the first recorded extrabiblical case of stigmata in history. Two years before his death, St. Francis was praying during a 40-day fast when he saw a vision of an angel on a cross, who gave him the five wounds of Christ. Prior to receiving the marks, St. Francis is said to have prayed for such a sign.
"In that hour which precedes sunrise, kneeling before his hut, Francis prayed, his face turned toward the east. 'O Lord,' he pleaded, 'I beg of You two graces before I die - to experience in myself in all possible fullness the pains of Your cruel Passion, and to feel for You the same love that made You sacrifice Yourself for us.'" (Englebert)
No one else saw the angel, but several people saw, and tended to, the wounds.
"However, as the Stigmata never disappeared, a number of persons were able to see them. Among them were Brother Leo, whom Francis took as his nurse and who regularly bathed the oozing wound in his side; Brother Rufino and several others who gave sworn testimony about them; and all present at the death of the Saint or who were able to venerate him in his coffin, especially Brother Jacopa and her sons, and Sister Claire and her daughters. In addition, Pope Alexander IV, who in a sermon heard by St. Bonaventure, averred that while Francis was still alive he had seen the miraculous marks with his own eyes." (Englebert)
Click here for the Religion Facts biography of St. Francis.
Pio of Pietrelcina
Pio of Pietrelcina (1887-1968), or "Padre Pio," a Catholic priest from Italy, claims to have received the stigmata in the form of unexplainable physical wounds. In 1911, Pio wrote a letter to his spiritual advisor and said,
"Then last night something happened which I can neither explain nor understand. In the middle of the palms of my hands a red mark appeared, about the size of a penny, accompanied by acute pain in the middle of the red marks. The pain was more pronounced in the middle of the left hand, so much so that I can still feel it. Also under my feet I can feel some pain."
The bloody marks, which were said to have smelled like flowers and perfume, were tended to by doctors, including the personal physician of Pope Benedict XV. The wounds were never infected, lacked the accumulation of fluid in the surrounding tissue, and x-rays taken in 1954, showed no physical abnormalities in Pio's bone structure.
Despite allegations of faking his stigmata, the canonized Pio in 2002 under Pope John Paul II.
Other Stigmatics
The following chart summarizes other notable cases of stigmata in history.
Lived / Died
Ethnicity
Church Date of Stigmata Known For
Saint Catherine of Sienna 1347-1380 Italian Roman Catholic Unknown patron saint of Italy along with St. Francis
Rita of Cascia 1381-1457 Italian Roman Catholic Unknown wound on forehead
Lucia Brocadelli 1476-1544 Italian Roman Catholic February 25, 1496 often in a state of spiritual ecstacy
St. John of God 1495-1550 Portuguese Roman Catholic Unknown patron saint of hospitals, firefighters, alcoholics
Saint Catherine of Ricci 1522-1590 Italian Roman Catholic Unknown wore an iron chain around her neck
Marie of the Incarnation 1566-1618 French Roman Catholic Unknown St. Teresa of Avila appeared to her as an apparition
St. Veronica Giuliani 1660-1727 Italian Roman Catholic 1694 had impression of crown of thorns on her head
Blessed Anne Catherine Emmerich 1774-1824 German Roman Catholic 1813 three physicians were convinced of the genuineness of the marks
St. Gemma Galgani 1878-1903 Italian Roman Catholic June 8, 1899 claims to have spoken with Jesus, Mary, and other saints
Therese Neumann 1898-1962 German Roman Catholic March-November, 1926 is said to have only consumed the Holy Eucharist from 1922-1962
Mary Faustina Kowalska 1905-1938 Polish Roman Catholic Unknown had visions of Jesus in purgatory
Zlatko Sudac 1971-present Croatian Roman Catholic Unknown bears cross on forehead
Christian Beliefs on Hell
"Some will not be redeemed. There is no doctrine which I would more willingly remove from Christianity than this if it lay in my power." -- C.S. Lewis, The Problem of Pain
"Abandon hope, all ye who enter here!" --Inscription over the gates of hell in Dante's Inferno
"It would be dreadful to suffer this fierceness and wrath of Almighty God for one moment; but you must suffer it for all eternity." --Jonathan Edwards, Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God (1741)
According to a 2004 Gallup Poll, 70% of Americans believe in hell. Belief in hell is highest among regular churchgoers: 92% of those who attend church weekly believe in hell, as do 74% of those who attend nearly weekly.
In Christian theology, hell is the place or state into which unrepentant sinners pass after this life. Hell is generally thought to be eternal, and to include both punishment (poena sensus) and separation from God (poena damni).
Although not central to the Christian faith, the doctrine of hell has been a significant part of historical Christian theology throughout its history.
Hell was a strong incentive to lead a righteous life in the early church. It was the setting for Dante's literary masterpiece The Inferno. It was fear of hell and judgment that terrified Martin Luther before his spiritual enlightenment. The doctrine of hell was central to the Jonathan Edwards' famous sermon "Sinners in the Hands of An Angry God" and many others like it.
For some, however, especially since the Enlightenment, hell has also been a major stumbling block to acceptance of Christianity. Some Christian groups no longer believe in an eternal hell, or at least regard belief in it as unnecessary.
This article will explore the doctrine of hell as it developed first in the sacred texts of Christianity and then in the hands of Christian theologians over the centuries. It concludes with a summary of modern Christian beliefs about hell, by way of quotes and excerpts from Christian groups.
The Word "Hell"
The word "hell" in English Bibles is used to translate the Hebrew word Sheol (and its Greek equivalent Hades) and the Greek word Gehenna. {1} The English word derives from the Anglo-Saxon meaning "to conceal" or "to cover," which is similar to the meanings of Sheol and Hades. {2}
In the Old Testament, Sheol (which is also sometimes translated "grave" or "pit") denotes the underworld or the place of departed spirits. "The notion reflects an undeveloped and shadowy belief in the future life which was gradually superseded by the more defined beliefs of later Judaism." {3}
Gehenna ("the Valley of Hinnom") is the Greek translation of a Hebrew word that seems to refer to an actual place on earth. The identity of Hinnom is not known for certain, but scholars have suggested an area southwest of Jerusalem near the Cedron. Gehenna is mentioned in Jos. 15:8 and 18:16, and in 2 Kings, it is described as a place of human sacrifice (16:3, 21:6) that was polluted (23:10-12). Jeremiah warned that one day would be renamed "Valley of Slaughter" (Jer. 7:32, 19:6). In later Jewish thought, Gehenna was a place of punishment for apostates and other great sinners (e.g., 1 Enoch 27:2, 90:26; 2 Esdras 7:36-38). A statement dating to 1200 AD that fires were continually kept burning in the Valley of Hinnom is generally regarded as reliable, although no earlier reference has yet been found. {4}
Hell in the Old Testament
The idea of hell (as understood in Christianity) is virtually absent from the Old Testament, which has very little to say about the afterlife at all. A possible mention hell in the Old Testament is this prophecy about the end times:
"Multitudes who sleep in the dust of the earth will awake: some to everlasting life, others to shame and everlasting contempt." (Daniel 12:2, NIV)
Another notable passage that likely contributes to Christian imagery of hell is Isaiah 66:24, which also refers to the end times:
"And they will go out and look upon the dead bodies of those who rebelled against me; their worm will not die, nor will their fire be quenched, and they will be loathsome to all mankind.
Other passages that speak of the afterlife seem to indicate extinction of the soul after death (see, e.g., Ecclesiastes 9:10). Rabbis have generally the taught the existence of a hell-like place for the unrighteous, but many Jews, both historical and modern, do not believe in hell or an afterlife. (See Jewish Beliefs: Afterlife.)
Hell in the New Testament
In the New Testament, the notion of hell is more clearly expressed, but still not in a systematic way. In many cases, "death" and "destruction" are the only mentioned penalties for rejecting God (e.g., Matthew 7:13, John 3:16, Acts 4:12, Romans 6:23, 2 Thessalonians 1:9, James 1:15). Also, as noted in the section above, the same terminology is often used in the New Testament that in the Jewish context may have suggested nothing more than physical death and destruction of the soul.
New Testament passages that have suggested eternal torment to Christians include the following:
"Anyone who says, 'You fool!' will be in danger of the fire of hell." (Matthew 5:22, quoting Jesus)
"And if your right hand causes you to sin, cut it off and throw it away. It is better for you to lose one part of your body than for your whole body to go into hell." (Matthew 5:29, quoting Jesus; see parallel passage in Mark 9:44, which adds, "where the fire never goes out.")
"Do not be afriad of those who kill the body but cannot kill the soul. Rather, be afraid of the One who can destroy both soul and body in hell." (Matthew 10:28, quoting Jesus)
"As the weeds are pulled up and burned in the fire, so it will be at the end of the age. The Son of Man will send out his angels, and they will weed out of his kingdom everything that causes sin and all who do evil. They will throw them into the fiery furnace, where there will be weeping and gnashing of teeth." (Matthew 13:40-42, quoting Jesus)
"Throw that worthless servant outside, into the darkness, where there will be weeping and gnashing of teeth." (Parable of the Talents, Matthew 25:30)
"Then he [the King] will say to those on his left, 'Depart from me, you who are cursed, into the eternal fire prepared for the devil and his angels." (Parable of the Sheep and the Goats, Matthew 25:41)
"The tongue also is a fire, a world of evil among the parts of the body. It corrupts the whole person, sets the whole course of his life on fire, and is itself set on fire by hell." (James 3:6)
"The sea gave up the dead that were in it, and death and Hades gave up the dead that were in them, and each person was judged according to what he had done. Then death and Hades were thrown into the lake of fire. The lake of fire is the second death. If anyone's name was not found written in the book of life, he was thrown into the lake of fire." (Revelation 20:13-15)
"The cowardly, the unbelieving, the vile...the idolaters and all liars - their place will be in the fiery lake of burning sulpher. This is the second death." (Revelation 21:8)
The Doctrine of Hell in the Church Fathers
In the church fathers (post-New-Testament Christian leaders and theologians), the doctrine of hell quickly becomes more well-defined as a place of eternal torment, which is generally seen as physical in nature: {5}
"The way of darkness is crooked, and it is full of cursing. It is the way of eternal death with punishment." (Pseudo-Barnabas, c. 70-130 AD)
"You should fear what is truly death, which is reserved for those who will be condemned to the eternal fire. It will afflict those who are committed to it even to the end." (Letter to Diognetus, c. 125-200)
"[The martyrs] despised all the torments of this world, redeeming themselves from eternal punishment by the suffering of a single hour.... For they kept before their view escape from that fire which is eternal and will never be quenched." (Martyrdom of Polycarp, c. 135)
"Sinners will be consumed because they sinned and did not repent." (Shepherd of Hermas, c. 150)
"Those who have not known God and do evil are condemned to death. However, those who have known God and have seen his mighty works, but still continue in evil, will be chastised doubly, and will die forever." (Shepherd of Hermas, c. 150)
"We believe...that every man will suffer punishment in eternal fire according to the merits of his deed. ... Sensation remains to all who have ever lived, and eternal punishment is laid up." (Justin Martyr, c. 160)
"Hell [Gehenna] is a place where those who have lived wickedly are to be punished." (Justin Martyr, c. 160)
"Some are sent to be punished unceasingly into judgment and condemnation of fire." (Justin Martyr, c. 160)
"We who are now easily susceptible to death, will afterwards receive immortality with either enjoyment or with pain." (Tatian, c. 160)
"We are persuaded that when we are removed from the present life we will live another life, better than the present one...or, if they fall with the rest, they will endure a worse life, one in fire. For God has not made us as sheep or beasts of burden, who are mere by-products. For animals perish and are annihilated. On these grounds, it is not likely that we would wish to do evil." (Athenagoras, c. 175)
"To the unbelieving and despisers...there will be anger and wrath, tribulation and anguish. At the end, everlasting fire will possess such men." (Theophilus, c. 180)
"Eternal fire is prepared for sinners. The Lord has plainly declared this and the rest of the Scriptures demonstrate it." (Irenaeus, c. 180)
"All souls are immortal, even those of the wicked. Yet, it would be better for them if they were not deathless. For they are punished with the endless vengeance of quenchless fire. Since they do not die, it is impossible for them to have an end put to their misery." (Clement of Alexandria, c. 195; from a post-Nicene manuscript fragment)
"We [Christians] alone make a real effort to attain a blameless life. We do this under the influence of... the magnitude of the threatened torment. For it is not merely long-enduring; rather, it is everlasting." (Tertullian, c. 197)
"Gehenna... is a reservoir of secret fire under the earth for purposes of punishment." (Tertullian, c. 197)
"There is neither limit nor termination of these torments. There, the intelligent fire burns the limbs and restores them. It feeds on them and nourishes them. ... However, no one except a profane man hesitates to believe that those who do not know God are deservedly tormented." (Mark Minucius Felix, c. 200)
However, some early church fathers, such as Origen of Alexandria and Gregory of Nyssa, questioned the eternality of hell and the literal interpretation of it as a fiery place. {6}
Modern Christian Views of Hell
Modern Christian views of hell tend to emphasize its spiritual aspects over the notion of physical suffering or material fire. Hell is seen as a logical extension of the free will of mankind to reject God's gracious advances, even for eternity, and its punishment as a realization of one's mistake and the great remorse that would follow. Many modern Christians also question hell's eternality in favor of some form of universalism (all are saved in the end) or annihilationism (wicked souls are destroyed).
Following is a sampling of the positions of various Christian denominations on the issue of hell.
It is impossible to describe the glory and splendor of heaven and the terror and torment of hell. Whether taken literally or figuratively, the meaning is the same: Hell is a place where one will experience total separation from God; heaven enjoys the total presence of God. Knowing that this is the horrible end awaiting the wicked, the Assemblies of God is strongly motivated to win the lost before it is too late. (Assemblies of God)
To die in mortal sin without repenting and accepting God's merciful love means remaining separated from him for ever by our own free choice. This state of definitive self- exclusion from communion with God and the blessed is called "hell." (Catechism of the Catholic Church)
The statement of Christ in Matthew 25, and elsewhere, are taken at face value. It is believed that after death each man must come before God in judgment and that he will be judged according to the deeds done while he lived (Hebrews 9:27). After judgment is pronounced he will spend eternity either in heaven or hell. (Churches of Christ)
We believe that glorious and everlasting life is assured to all who savingly believe in, and obediently follow, Jesus Christ our Lord; and that the finally impenitent shall suffer eternally in hell. (Church of the Nazarene)
This hope for the final salvation of humanity and the eternal universal restitution of all things in heaven and on earth ... is drawn from the unlimited promise of the Gospel and the magnitude of God's grace made known to the world through Christ. (Evangelical Lutheran Church of America)
We believe in the bodily resurrection of the dead; of the believer to everlasting blessedness and joy with the Lord; of the unbeliever to judgment and everlasting conscious punishment. (Evangelical Free Church of America)
The moral progress of the soul, either for better or for worse, ends at the very moment of the separation of the body and soul; at that very moment the definite destiny of the soul in the everlasting life is decided. ... The Orthodox Church believes that at this moment the soul of the dead person begins to enjoy ... the life in Paradise or to undergo the life in Hell. There is no way of repentance, no way of escape, no reincarnation and no help from the outside world. (Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of America)
Arguments For An Eternal Hell
Among the common arguments advanced for the existence of an eternal hell are these:
1.Words and pictures in the New Testament imply finality.
2.The doctrine of hell has been believed for a long time by eminent theologians.
3.Offers of pardon are restricted to the present world.
4.The judgment occurs at the close of the redemptive era, and hence is final.
5.Character tends to final permanance.
6.The conscience expects and demands retribution in another life. {7}
Arguments Against An Eternal Hell
Commonly presented arguments against the existence of an eternal hell include:
1.Words and pictures in the New Testament imply death and destruction (i.e., annihilation).
2."Eternal punishment" can refer to results that are eternal, not an eternal process.
3.Vindictive justice is not compatible with the God of love and compassion revealed in the New Testament.
4.The punishment does not fit the crime (i.e. non-eternal sin and disbelief). {8}
5.Hell contradicts the Christian assertion of the final victory of God over evil. {9}
"Abandon hope, all ye who enter here!" --Inscription over the gates of hell in Dante's Inferno
"It would be dreadful to suffer this fierceness and wrath of Almighty God for one moment; but you must suffer it for all eternity." --Jonathan Edwards, Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God (1741)
According to a 2004 Gallup Poll, 70% of Americans believe in hell. Belief in hell is highest among regular churchgoers: 92% of those who attend church weekly believe in hell, as do 74% of those who attend nearly weekly.
In Christian theology, hell is the place or state into which unrepentant sinners pass after this life. Hell is generally thought to be eternal, and to include both punishment (poena sensus) and separation from God (poena damni).
Although not central to the Christian faith, the doctrine of hell has been a significant part of historical Christian theology throughout its history.
Hell was a strong incentive to lead a righteous life in the early church. It was the setting for Dante's literary masterpiece The Inferno. It was fear of hell and judgment that terrified Martin Luther before his spiritual enlightenment. The doctrine of hell was central to the Jonathan Edwards' famous sermon "Sinners in the Hands of An Angry God" and many others like it.
For some, however, especially since the Enlightenment, hell has also been a major stumbling block to acceptance of Christianity. Some Christian groups no longer believe in an eternal hell, or at least regard belief in it as unnecessary.
This article will explore the doctrine of hell as it developed first in the sacred texts of Christianity and then in the hands of Christian theologians over the centuries. It concludes with a summary of modern Christian beliefs about hell, by way of quotes and excerpts from Christian groups.
The Word "Hell"
The word "hell" in English Bibles is used to translate the Hebrew word Sheol (and its Greek equivalent Hades) and the Greek word Gehenna. {1} The English word derives from the Anglo-Saxon meaning "to conceal" or "to cover," which is similar to the meanings of Sheol and Hades. {2}
In the Old Testament, Sheol (which is also sometimes translated "grave" or "pit") denotes the underworld or the place of departed spirits. "The notion reflects an undeveloped and shadowy belief in the future life which was gradually superseded by the more defined beliefs of later Judaism." {3}
Gehenna ("the Valley of Hinnom") is the Greek translation of a Hebrew word that seems to refer to an actual place on earth. The identity of Hinnom is not known for certain, but scholars have suggested an area southwest of Jerusalem near the Cedron. Gehenna is mentioned in Jos. 15:8 and 18:16, and in 2 Kings, it is described as a place of human sacrifice (16:3, 21:6) that was polluted (23:10-12). Jeremiah warned that one day would be renamed "Valley of Slaughter" (Jer. 7:32, 19:6). In later Jewish thought, Gehenna was a place of punishment for apostates and other great sinners (e.g., 1 Enoch 27:2, 90:26; 2 Esdras 7:36-38). A statement dating to 1200 AD that fires were continually kept burning in the Valley of Hinnom is generally regarded as reliable, although no earlier reference has yet been found. {4}
Hell in the Old Testament
The idea of hell (as understood in Christianity) is virtually absent from the Old Testament, which has very little to say about the afterlife at all. A possible mention hell in the Old Testament is this prophecy about the end times:
"Multitudes who sleep in the dust of the earth will awake: some to everlasting life, others to shame and everlasting contempt." (Daniel 12:2, NIV)
Another notable passage that likely contributes to Christian imagery of hell is Isaiah 66:24, which also refers to the end times:
"And they will go out and look upon the dead bodies of those who rebelled against me; their worm will not die, nor will their fire be quenched, and they will be loathsome to all mankind.
Other passages that speak of the afterlife seem to indicate extinction of the soul after death (see, e.g., Ecclesiastes 9:10). Rabbis have generally the taught the existence of a hell-like place for the unrighteous, but many Jews, both historical and modern, do not believe in hell or an afterlife. (See Jewish Beliefs: Afterlife.)
Hell in the New Testament
In the New Testament, the notion of hell is more clearly expressed, but still not in a systematic way. In many cases, "death" and "destruction" are the only mentioned penalties for rejecting God (e.g., Matthew 7:13, John 3:16, Acts 4:12, Romans 6:23, 2 Thessalonians 1:9, James 1:15). Also, as noted in the section above, the same terminology is often used in the New Testament that in the Jewish context may have suggested nothing more than physical death and destruction of the soul.
New Testament passages that have suggested eternal torment to Christians include the following:
"Anyone who says, 'You fool!' will be in danger of the fire of hell." (Matthew 5:22, quoting Jesus)
"And if your right hand causes you to sin, cut it off and throw it away. It is better for you to lose one part of your body than for your whole body to go into hell." (Matthew 5:29, quoting Jesus; see parallel passage in Mark 9:44, which adds, "where the fire never goes out.")
"Do not be afriad of those who kill the body but cannot kill the soul. Rather, be afraid of the One who can destroy both soul and body in hell." (Matthew 10:28, quoting Jesus)
"As the weeds are pulled up and burned in the fire, so it will be at the end of the age. The Son of Man will send out his angels, and they will weed out of his kingdom everything that causes sin and all who do evil. They will throw them into the fiery furnace, where there will be weeping and gnashing of teeth." (Matthew 13:40-42, quoting Jesus)
"Throw that worthless servant outside, into the darkness, where there will be weeping and gnashing of teeth." (Parable of the Talents, Matthew 25:30)
"Then he [the King] will say to those on his left, 'Depart from me, you who are cursed, into the eternal fire prepared for the devil and his angels." (Parable of the Sheep and the Goats, Matthew 25:41)
"The tongue also is a fire, a world of evil among the parts of the body. It corrupts the whole person, sets the whole course of his life on fire, and is itself set on fire by hell." (James 3:6)
"The sea gave up the dead that were in it, and death and Hades gave up the dead that were in them, and each person was judged according to what he had done. Then death and Hades were thrown into the lake of fire. The lake of fire is the second death. If anyone's name was not found written in the book of life, he was thrown into the lake of fire." (Revelation 20:13-15)
"The cowardly, the unbelieving, the vile...the idolaters and all liars - their place will be in the fiery lake of burning sulpher. This is the second death." (Revelation 21:8)
The Doctrine of Hell in the Church Fathers
In the church fathers (post-New-Testament Christian leaders and theologians), the doctrine of hell quickly becomes more well-defined as a place of eternal torment, which is generally seen as physical in nature: {5}
"The way of darkness is crooked, and it is full of cursing. It is the way of eternal death with punishment." (Pseudo-Barnabas, c. 70-130 AD)
"You should fear what is truly death, which is reserved for those who will be condemned to the eternal fire. It will afflict those who are committed to it even to the end." (Letter to Diognetus, c. 125-200)
"[The martyrs] despised all the torments of this world, redeeming themselves from eternal punishment by the suffering of a single hour.... For they kept before their view escape from that fire which is eternal and will never be quenched." (Martyrdom of Polycarp, c. 135)
"Sinners will be consumed because they sinned and did not repent." (Shepherd of Hermas, c. 150)
"Those who have not known God and do evil are condemned to death. However, those who have known God and have seen his mighty works, but still continue in evil, will be chastised doubly, and will die forever." (Shepherd of Hermas, c. 150)
"We believe...that every man will suffer punishment in eternal fire according to the merits of his deed. ... Sensation remains to all who have ever lived, and eternal punishment is laid up." (Justin Martyr, c. 160)
"Hell [Gehenna] is a place where those who have lived wickedly are to be punished." (Justin Martyr, c. 160)
"Some are sent to be punished unceasingly into judgment and condemnation of fire." (Justin Martyr, c. 160)
"We who are now easily susceptible to death, will afterwards receive immortality with either enjoyment or with pain." (Tatian, c. 160)
"We are persuaded that when we are removed from the present life we will live another life, better than the present one...or, if they fall with the rest, they will endure a worse life, one in fire. For God has not made us as sheep or beasts of burden, who are mere by-products. For animals perish and are annihilated. On these grounds, it is not likely that we would wish to do evil." (Athenagoras, c. 175)
"To the unbelieving and despisers...there will be anger and wrath, tribulation and anguish. At the end, everlasting fire will possess such men." (Theophilus, c. 180)
"Eternal fire is prepared for sinners. The Lord has plainly declared this and the rest of the Scriptures demonstrate it." (Irenaeus, c. 180)
"All souls are immortal, even those of the wicked. Yet, it would be better for them if they were not deathless. For they are punished with the endless vengeance of quenchless fire. Since they do not die, it is impossible for them to have an end put to their misery." (Clement of Alexandria, c. 195; from a post-Nicene manuscript fragment)
"We [Christians] alone make a real effort to attain a blameless life. We do this under the influence of... the magnitude of the threatened torment. For it is not merely long-enduring; rather, it is everlasting." (Tertullian, c. 197)
"Gehenna... is a reservoir of secret fire under the earth for purposes of punishment." (Tertullian, c. 197)
"There is neither limit nor termination of these torments. There, the intelligent fire burns the limbs and restores them. It feeds on them and nourishes them. ... However, no one except a profane man hesitates to believe that those who do not know God are deservedly tormented." (Mark Minucius Felix, c. 200)
However, some early church fathers, such as Origen of Alexandria and Gregory of Nyssa, questioned the eternality of hell and the literal interpretation of it as a fiery place. {6}
Modern Christian Views of Hell
Modern Christian views of hell tend to emphasize its spiritual aspects over the notion of physical suffering or material fire. Hell is seen as a logical extension of the free will of mankind to reject God's gracious advances, even for eternity, and its punishment as a realization of one's mistake and the great remorse that would follow. Many modern Christians also question hell's eternality in favor of some form of universalism (all are saved in the end) or annihilationism (wicked souls are destroyed).
Following is a sampling of the positions of various Christian denominations on the issue of hell.
It is impossible to describe the glory and splendor of heaven and the terror and torment of hell. Whether taken literally or figuratively, the meaning is the same: Hell is a place where one will experience total separation from God; heaven enjoys the total presence of God. Knowing that this is the horrible end awaiting the wicked, the Assemblies of God is strongly motivated to win the lost before it is too late. (Assemblies of God)
To die in mortal sin without repenting and accepting God's merciful love means remaining separated from him for ever by our own free choice. This state of definitive self- exclusion from communion with God and the blessed is called "hell." (Catechism of the Catholic Church)
The statement of Christ in Matthew 25, and elsewhere, are taken at face value. It is believed that after death each man must come before God in judgment and that he will be judged according to the deeds done while he lived (Hebrews 9:27). After judgment is pronounced he will spend eternity either in heaven or hell. (Churches of Christ)
We believe that glorious and everlasting life is assured to all who savingly believe in, and obediently follow, Jesus Christ our Lord; and that the finally impenitent shall suffer eternally in hell. (Church of the Nazarene)
This hope for the final salvation of humanity and the eternal universal restitution of all things in heaven and on earth ... is drawn from the unlimited promise of the Gospel and the magnitude of God's grace made known to the world through Christ. (Evangelical Lutheran Church of America)
We believe in the bodily resurrection of the dead; of the believer to everlasting blessedness and joy with the Lord; of the unbeliever to judgment and everlasting conscious punishment. (Evangelical Free Church of America)
The moral progress of the soul, either for better or for worse, ends at the very moment of the separation of the body and soul; at that very moment the definite destiny of the soul in the everlasting life is decided. ... The Orthodox Church believes that at this moment the soul of the dead person begins to enjoy ... the life in Paradise or to undergo the life in Hell. There is no way of repentance, no way of escape, no reincarnation and no help from the outside world. (Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of America)
Arguments For An Eternal Hell
Among the common arguments advanced for the existence of an eternal hell are these:
1.Words and pictures in the New Testament imply finality.
2.The doctrine of hell has been believed for a long time by eminent theologians.
3.Offers of pardon are restricted to the present world.
4.The judgment occurs at the close of the redemptive era, and hence is final.
5.Character tends to final permanance.
6.The conscience expects and demands retribution in another life. {7}
Arguments Against An Eternal Hell
Commonly presented arguments against the existence of an eternal hell include:
1.Words and pictures in the New Testament imply death and destruction (i.e., annihilation).
2."Eternal punishment" can refer to results that are eternal, not an eternal process.
3.Vindictive justice is not compatible with the God of love and compassion revealed in the New Testament.
4.The punishment does not fit the crime (i.e. non-eternal sin and disbelief). {8}
5.Hell contradicts the Christian assertion of the final victory of God over evil. {9}
Christian Beliefs about the Afterlife
Christian beliefs about the afterlife vary between denominations and individual Christians, but the vast majority of Christians believe in some kind of heaven, in which believers enjoy the presence of God and other believers and freedom from suffering and sin.
Views differ as to whether those of other faiths or none at all will be in heaven, and conceptions of what heaven will be like differ as well.
A slightly lesser majority of Christians believe in the existence of hell, where unbelievers or sinners are punished. Views differ as to whether hell is eternal and whether its punishment is spiritual or physical. Some Christians reject the notion altogether.
Catholic Christians also believe in purgatory, a temporary place of punishment for Christians who have died with unconfessed sins.
For more specific Christian views about the afterlife, following are doctrinal statements from several different Christian denominations and organizations on the afterlife. Click on the linked title for the source of the quote.
Assemblies of God:
The resurrection of those who have fallen asleep in Christ and their translation together with those who are alive and remain unto the coming of the Lord is the imminent and blessed hope of the church. The second coming of Christ includes the rapture of the saints, which is our blessed hope, followed by the visible return of Christ with His saints to reign on earth for one thousand years. This millennial reign will bring the salvation of national Israel, and the establishment of universal peace. There will be a final judgment in which the wicked dead will be raised and judged according to their works. Whosoever is not found written in the Book of Life, together with the devil and his angels, the beast and the false prophet, will be consigned to the everlasting punishment in the lake which burneth with fire and brimstone, which is the second death. We, according to His promise, look for new heavens and a new earth wherein dwelleth righteousness.
Christianity Today Magazine:
At the end of the age, the bodies of the dead shall be raised. The righteous shall enter into full possession of eternal bliss in the presence of God, and the wicked shall be condemned to eternal death.
Evangelical Free Church of America:
We believe in the bodily resurrection of the dead; of the believer to everlasting blessedness and joy with the Lord; of the unbeliever to judgment and everlasting conscious punishment.
Friends United Meeting (Quaker):
We believe, according to the Scriptures, that there shall be a resurrection from the dead, both of the just and of the unjust, (Acts 24:15) and that God hath appointed a day in which He will judge the world in righteousness, by Jesus Christ whom He hath ordained. (Acts 17:31) For, as saith the apostle, "We must all appear before the judgment seat of Christ, that every one may receive the things done in his body, according to that he hath done, whether it be good or bad." (2 Cor 5:10). We sincerely believe, not only a resurrection in Christ from the fallen and sinful state here, but a rising and ascending into glory with Him hereafter; that when He at last appears we may appear with Him in glory. But that all the wicked, who live in rebellion against the light of grace, and die finally impenitent, shall come forth to the resurrection of condemnation. And that the soul of every man and woman shall be reserved, in its own distinct and proper being, and shall have its proper body as God is pleased to give it. It is sown a natural body, it is raised a spiritual body; (1 Cor 15:44) that being first which is natural and afterward that which is spiritual.
... We believe that the punishment of the wicked and the blessedness of the righteousness shall be everlasting, according to the declaration of our compassionate Redeemer, to whom the judgment is committed, "These shall go away into eternal punishment, but the righteous into eternal life." (RV, Matt 25:46)
Lutheran Church (Augsburg Confession, 1530):
Also they [Lutheran churches] teach that at the Consummation of the World Christ will appear for judgment, and will raise up all the dead; He will give to the godly and elect eternal life and everlasting joys, but ungodly men and the devils He will condemn to be tormented without end. They condemn the Anabaptists, who think that there will be an end to the punishments of condemned men and devils. They condemn also others who are now spreading certain Jewish opinions, that before the resurrection of the dead the godly shall take possession of the kingdom of the world, the ungodly being everywhere suppressed.
Mennonite Church in the USA:
We believe that, just as God raised Jesus from the dead, we also will be raised from the dead. At Christ's glorious coming again for judgment, the dead will come out of their graves"--those who have done good, to the resurrection of life, and those who have done evil, to the resurrection of condemnation." The righteous will rise to eternal life with God, and the unrighteous to hell and separation from God. Thus, God will bring justice to the persecuted and will confirm the victory over sin, evil, and death itself.
We look forward to the coming of a new heaven and a new earth, and a new Jerusalem, where the people of God will no longer hunger, thirst, or cry, but will sing praises: "To the One seated on the throne and to the Lamb be blessing and honor and glory and might forever and ever! Amen!"
Presbyterian Church in the USA:
If there is a Presbyterian narrative about life after death, this is it: When you die, your soul goes to be with God, where it enjoys God's glory and waits for the final judgment. At the final judgment bodies are reunited with souls, and eternal rewards and punishments are handed out. As the Scots Confession notes, final judgment is also "the time of refreshing and restitution of all things."And it is clearly the case that both the Scots Confession and the Westminster Confession of Faith want to orient the present-day life of believers around this future. But the Bible spends more time focusing on new life here than on life after death. So do all our more recent confessions. Although the Confession of 1967 mentions life after death, it does so only briefly. Its focus is on new life now and on the church's ministry of reconciliation.
Southern Baptist Convention:
God, in His own time and in His own way, will bring the world to its appropriate end. According to His promise, Jesus Christ will return personally and visibly in glory to the earth; the dead will be raised; and Christ will judge all men in righteousness. The unrighteous will be consigned to Hell, the place of everlasting punishment. The righteous in their resurrected and glorified bodies will receive their reward and will dwell forever in Heaven with the Lord.
United Church of Christ:
God promises to all who trust in the gospel forgiveness of sins and fullness of grace, courage in the struggle for justice and peace,the presence of the Holy Spirit in trial and rejoicing, and eternal life in that kingdom which has no end.
United Methodist Church (on purgatory):
The Romish doctrine concerning purgatory, pardon, worshiping, and adoration, as well of images as of relics, and also invocation of saints, is a fond thing, vainly invented, and grounded upon no warrant of Scripture, but repugnant to the Word of God.
Views differ as to whether those of other faiths or none at all will be in heaven, and conceptions of what heaven will be like differ as well.
A slightly lesser majority of Christians believe in the existence of hell, where unbelievers or sinners are punished. Views differ as to whether hell is eternal and whether its punishment is spiritual or physical. Some Christians reject the notion altogether.
Catholic Christians also believe in purgatory, a temporary place of punishment for Christians who have died with unconfessed sins.
For more specific Christian views about the afterlife, following are doctrinal statements from several different Christian denominations and organizations on the afterlife. Click on the linked title for the source of the quote.
Assemblies of God:
The resurrection of those who have fallen asleep in Christ and their translation together with those who are alive and remain unto the coming of the Lord is the imminent and blessed hope of the church. The second coming of Christ includes the rapture of the saints, which is our blessed hope, followed by the visible return of Christ with His saints to reign on earth for one thousand years. This millennial reign will bring the salvation of national Israel, and the establishment of universal peace. There will be a final judgment in which the wicked dead will be raised and judged according to their works. Whosoever is not found written in the Book of Life, together with the devil and his angels, the beast and the false prophet, will be consigned to the everlasting punishment in the lake which burneth with fire and brimstone, which is the second death. We, according to His promise, look for new heavens and a new earth wherein dwelleth righteousness.
Christianity Today Magazine:
At the end of the age, the bodies of the dead shall be raised. The righteous shall enter into full possession of eternal bliss in the presence of God, and the wicked shall be condemned to eternal death.
Evangelical Free Church of America:
We believe in the bodily resurrection of the dead; of the believer to everlasting blessedness and joy with the Lord; of the unbeliever to judgment and everlasting conscious punishment.
Friends United Meeting (Quaker):
We believe, according to the Scriptures, that there shall be a resurrection from the dead, both of the just and of the unjust, (Acts 24:15) and that God hath appointed a day in which He will judge the world in righteousness, by Jesus Christ whom He hath ordained. (Acts 17:31) For, as saith the apostle, "We must all appear before the judgment seat of Christ, that every one may receive the things done in his body, according to that he hath done, whether it be good or bad." (2 Cor 5:10). We sincerely believe, not only a resurrection in Christ from the fallen and sinful state here, but a rising and ascending into glory with Him hereafter; that when He at last appears we may appear with Him in glory. But that all the wicked, who live in rebellion against the light of grace, and die finally impenitent, shall come forth to the resurrection of condemnation. And that the soul of every man and woman shall be reserved, in its own distinct and proper being, and shall have its proper body as God is pleased to give it. It is sown a natural body, it is raised a spiritual body; (1 Cor 15:44) that being first which is natural and afterward that which is spiritual.
... We believe that the punishment of the wicked and the blessedness of the righteousness shall be everlasting, according to the declaration of our compassionate Redeemer, to whom the judgment is committed, "These shall go away into eternal punishment, but the righteous into eternal life." (RV, Matt 25:46)
Lutheran Church (Augsburg Confession, 1530):
Also they [Lutheran churches] teach that at the Consummation of the World Christ will appear for judgment, and will raise up all the dead; He will give to the godly and elect eternal life and everlasting joys, but ungodly men and the devils He will condemn to be tormented without end. They condemn the Anabaptists, who think that there will be an end to the punishments of condemned men and devils. They condemn also others who are now spreading certain Jewish opinions, that before the resurrection of the dead the godly shall take possession of the kingdom of the world, the ungodly being everywhere suppressed.
Mennonite Church in the USA:
We believe that, just as God raised Jesus from the dead, we also will be raised from the dead. At Christ's glorious coming again for judgment, the dead will come out of their graves"--those who have done good, to the resurrection of life, and those who have done evil, to the resurrection of condemnation." The righteous will rise to eternal life with God, and the unrighteous to hell and separation from God. Thus, God will bring justice to the persecuted and will confirm the victory over sin, evil, and death itself.
We look forward to the coming of a new heaven and a new earth, and a new Jerusalem, where the people of God will no longer hunger, thirst, or cry, but will sing praises: "To the One seated on the throne and to the Lamb be blessing and honor and glory and might forever and ever! Amen!"
Presbyterian Church in the USA:
If there is a Presbyterian narrative about life after death, this is it: When you die, your soul goes to be with God, where it enjoys God's glory and waits for the final judgment. At the final judgment bodies are reunited with souls, and eternal rewards and punishments are handed out. As the Scots Confession notes, final judgment is also "the time of refreshing and restitution of all things."And it is clearly the case that both the Scots Confession and the Westminster Confession of Faith want to orient the present-day life of believers around this future. But the Bible spends more time focusing on new life here than on life after death. So do all our more recent confessions. Although the Confession of 1967 mentions life after death, it does so only briefly. Its focus is on new life now and on the church's ministry of reconciliation.
Southern Baptist Convention:
God, in His own time and in His own way, will bring the world to its appropriate end. According to His promise, Jesus Christ will return personally and visibly in glory to the earth; the dead will be raised; and Christ will judge all men in righteousness. The unrighteous will be consigned to Hell, the place of everlasting punishment. The righteous in their resurrected and glorified bodies will receive their reward and will dwell forever in Heaven with the Lord.
United Church of Christ:
God promises to all who trust in the gospel forgiveness of sins and fullness of grace, courage in the struggle for justice and peace,the presence of the Holy Spirit in trial and rejoicing, and eternal life in that kingdom which has no end.
United Methodist Church (on purgatory):
The Romish doctrine concerning purgatory, pardon, worshiping, and adoration, as well of images as of relics, and also invocation of saints, is a fond thing, vainly invented, and grounded upon no warrant of Scripture, but repugnant to the Word of God.
Christian Beliefs about Human Nature
Image of God
Fundamental to the Christian understanding of human nature is the belief that the first humans were created in the image of God (imago Dei). This derives from Genesis 1:26-27, which declares:
Then God said, "Let us make man in our image, in our likeness, and let them rule over the fish of the sea and the birds of the air, over the livestock, over all the earth, and over all the creatures that move along the ground. So God created man in his own image, in the image of God he created him; male and female he created them.
What does it mean to be created in the image of God? Certainly it does not mean that humans look like God, for all monotheistic religions believe God to be incorporeal (nonphysical). But theologians have found in this doctrine a rich variety of other meanings, all of which give great dignity and honor to the human race.
Closely related to the imago Dei is the belief that humans were created perfectly good, on which Christianity, Judaism, and Islam are agreed. The concept of original goodness is based in part on humanity's creation in the image of God, as well as the observation that God looked upon his creation of human beings with satisfaction and pronounced them "very good." {1} There is a philosophical basis as well: it is reasoned that since God is absolutely good, he cannot be the origin of anything evil.
A Fallen Nature
All monotheistic faiths also agree, however, that humankind has fallen from this original state of innocence. The disobedience of Adam and Eve brought negative results that endure to this day. The most widely agreed upon result is the entrance of physical death into the world. {2} Beyond that, Christians views differ as to the effect Adam's sin had on the rest of humanity. Most have taught that when Adam fell and was cast from the Garden of Eden, permanent damage was done to the human soul such that every human being since Adam is born with a tendency towards sin.
In addition, sin is universal: every human being {3} has fulfilled the inborn tendency and actually committed sins. This concept begins in the New Testament with the Apostle Paul, who declared that "all have sinned and fallen short of the glory of God. there is no one who is righteous, not even one."
Original Sin
Some Christians have also taught the doctrine of "original sin," in which all humans are born not only with a predisposition to sinful behavior, but with an inherently sinful nature. The result is that every person is born deserving eternal damnation, whether or not they have actually committed a sin yet.
The doctrine of original sin has been especially emphasized by St. Augustine and most of the Protestant Reformers; it is rejected by Jews, Muslims, and some Christian denominations.
Fundamental to the Christian understanding of human nature is the belief that the first humans were created in the image of God (imago Dei). This derives from Genesis 1:26-27, which declares:
Then God said, "Let us make man in our image, in our likeness, and let them rule over the fish of the sea and the birds of the air, over the livestock, over all the earth, and over all the creatures that move along the ground. So God created man in his own image, in the image of God he created him; male and female he created them.
What does it mean to be created in the image of God? Certainly it does not mean that humans look like God, for all monotheistic religions believe God to be incorporeal (nonphysical). But theologians have found in this doctrine a rich variety of other meanings, all of which give great dignity and honor to the human race.
Closely related to the imago Dei is the belief that humans were created perfectly good, on which Christianity, Judaism, and Islam are agreed. The concept of original goodness is based in part on humanity's creation in the image of God, as well as the observation that God looked upon his creation of human beings with satisfaction and pronounced them "very good." {1} There is a philosophical basis as well: it is reasoned that since God is absolutely good, he cannot be the origin of anything evil.
A Fallen Nature
All monotheistic faiths also agree, however, that humankind has fallen from this original state of innocence. The disobedience of Adam and Eve brought negative results that endure to this day. The most widely agreed upon result is the entrance of physical death into the world. {2} Beyond that, Christians views differ as to the effect Adam's sin had on the rest of humanity. Most have taught that when Adam fell and was cast from the Garden of Eden, permanent damage was done to the human soul such that every human being since Adam is born with a tendency towards sin.
In addition, sin is universal: every human being {3} has fulfilled the inborn tendency and actually committed sins. This concept begins in the New Testament with the Apostle Paul, who declared that "all have sinned and fallen short of the glory of God. there is no one who is righteous, not even one."
Original Sin
Some Christians have also taught the doctrine of "original sin," in which all humans are born not only with a predisposition to sinful behavior, but with an inherently sinful nature. The result is that every person is born deserving eternal damnation, whether or not they have actually committed a sin yet.
The doctrine of original sin has been especially emphasized by St. Augustine and most of the Protestant Reformers; it is rejected by Jews, Muslims, and some Christian denominations.
onsdag 5 januari 2011
Christian Beliefs about Mary
christianity / beliefs / mary
Christian Beliefs about Mary
“Henceforth all generations will call me blessed.”
--Mary, Luke 1:48
There are several Marys in the Bible, but by far the most important is Mary, the Mother of Jesus. She is known by many titles, including the Blessed Virgin Mary (sometimes abbreviated BVM), Queen of Heaven, Theotokos (Mother of God) and Our Lady (Notre-Dame in French; Madonna in Italian).
Because of her humility, piety and role as the mother of the Savior of humanity, Mary has been accorded great respect in all branches of Christianity and is a favorite subject in art, music and literature. In Catholic and Orthodox Churches, Mary is the pre-eminent saint and the focus of much popular devotion.
This article explores historical and modern Christian beliefs about Mary (known as "Mariology"), which includes such doctrines as the Immaculate Conception of Mary, the Virgin Birth of Christ, the perpetual virginity of Mary, the Assumption of Mary, Mary as "Theotokos," and Mary as Coredemptrix and Mediatrix.
Visions, shrines, feast days, the "Hail Mary" and other devotional practices related to Mary, which are important aspects of Mariology, will be treated in the Christian Practices section.
Mary in the New Testament
Mary in Apocryphal Texts
Mary in Early Christian Theology
Mary in the Reformation and Protestantism
The Immaculate Conception
Mary as Virgin Mother
Mary as Theotokos or Mother of God
Mary as Ever-Virgin
The Assumption of Mary
Mary as Coredemptrix and Mediatrix
Mary in Non-Christian Faiths
References
Related Articles
External Links on Mary
Books on Mary
Mary in the New Testament
The Virgin Mary plays a prominent role in the Gospels, especially in the birth stories of Mark (1-2) and Luke (1-2). According to Luke, Mary was of the tribe of Judah and the lineage of David (1:32).
When Mary was a young woman engaged to Joseph, the Angel Gabriele announced to her that she would give birth to a son that would be born of the Holy Spirit. Mary humbly accepted her divinely-appointed role, saying, "May it be unto me as you have said." She then conceived and gave birth to Jesus while remaining a virgin (Lk 1:31f; Mt 1:20, 23).
Mary appears periodically throughout Jesus' ministry, death and resurrection. She was present at Jesus' first miracle, which he performed reluctantly at her suggestion (John 2:1f).
At the crucifixion, Mary and a small group of women were present (Jn 19:25). Speaking from the cross, Jesus entrusted her care to his disciple John (Jn 19:26). One of Michaelangelo's most famous sculptures (right) depicts Mary mourning her son's death.
According to traditional interpretation, the Virgin Mary was not the "other Mary" who visited the tomb after Jesus' death (Matthew 28:1) – it is said she did not visit the tomb because she already knew he would not be there.
In addition, there is no biblical record of the resurrected Jesus appearing to Mary. In 1997, the Pope speculates that it is highly likely Jesus did appear to his mother (Vatican Information Services, May 21, 1997). After the resurrection, Mary was present in the Upper Room at Jerusalem with the disciples (Acts 1:14), but this is the last biblical mention of her.
Mary in Apocryphal Texts
The Gospel of James contains biographical material about Mary considered plausible by some Orthodox and Catholic Christians. It states she was the daughter of Joachim and Anna, who were quite old when she was conceived. They took her to live in the Temple in Jerusalem when she was three years old, as Hannah took Samuel to the Tabernacle in the Old Testament. The Gospel of James also teaches Mary's perpetual virginity.
Mary in Early Christian Theology
In the writings of the early church fathers, Mary is mentioned only occasionally and primarily in contrast to Eve. Justin Martyr (d. c.165) and Irenaeus (d. c.202) contrasted Mary's obedience with Eve's disobedience.
The apocryphal Gospel of James (as seen above), Irenaeus, Clement of Alexandria, and especially Athanasius affirmed Mary's perpetual virginity. This doctrine was accepted by both Western and Eastern Churches from the fifth century onwards.
The doctrine of Mary as Theotokos (God-bearer) arose in Alexandria and was probably first used by Origen. It became common in the fourth century, was opposed by Nestorius, and accepted at the Council of Ephesus in 431. Mary played a lesser role in the West than in the East at this time. Western theologians like St. Ambrose primarily spoke of Mary as a "type" or symbol of the Church.
The doctrine of the bodily Assumption of Mary was formally developed by St. Gregory of Tours (d. 594), although it had been present in apocryphal tests since the late fourth century. The Feast of the Assumption became widespread in the sixth century, and sermons on that occasion tended to emphasize Mary's power in heaven.
Mary in the Reformation and Protestantism
Despite the Reformer's rejection of the veneration of Mary and other saints, most Protestants have shown a great deal of honor and respect for Mary. Martin Luther said Mary is "the highest woman," that "we can never honour her enough," that "the veneration of Mary is inscribed in the very depths of the human heart" and that we should "wish that everyone know and respect her." John Calvin said, "It cannot be denied that God in choosing and destining Mary to be the Mother of his Son, granted her the highest honor." Zwingli said, "I esteem immensely the Mother of God," and, "The more the honor and love of Christ increases among men, so much the esteem and honor given to Mary should grow."
Most Reformers rejected the Immaculate Conception, and the Assumption of Mary, but some affirmed the perpetual virginity of Mary and all accepted the Virgin Birth.
Since the Reformation, Protestants have tended to pay little attention to Mary, primarily in reaction against the excessive level of adoration they believe is relegated to her in Catholic and Orthodox Christianity. But this may be beginning to change. In the summer of 2004, Christian History & Biography magazine (affiliated with the Protestant Christianity Today) dedicated an entire issue to Mary. Included were articles suggesting the value of making a larger place for her in Protestantism. {6} In December 2004, the Southern Baptist dean of an evangelical school in Alabama said:
I would like Protestants today, evangelicals today, to go back to the reformers. I don't think we have to become Roman Catholics or Eastern Orthodox believers to recover a truly Protestant, reformational, scriptural understanding of Mary. {7}
Professor Beverley Roberts Gaventa of Princeton Theological Seminary, whose writings have called for more Protestant emphasis of Mary agrees, pointing out:
What happens in the story is that Mary is chosen entirely by God's own initiative. This is a primary example of what Protestants emphasize as God's divine grace, God's initiative. {7}
The Immaculate Conception
The Most Blessed Virgin Mary was, from the first moment of her conception, by a singular grace and privilege of almighty God and by virtue of the merits of Jesus Christ, Savior of the human race, preserved immune from all stain of original sin.
-- Pope Pius IX, Ineffabilis Deus (1854)
According to the doctrine of the Immaculate Conception, Mary was born without the stain of original sin. Both Catholics and Orthodox accept this doctrine, but only the Roman Catholic Church has solemnly defined the teaching, and the title "Immaculate Conception" is generally used only by Catholics. Most Protestants reject the idea as having no foundation in Scripture.
In Eastern Orthodox Churches, the matter is seen somewhat differently. Orthodox Christians reject the western doctrine of original sin, preferring instead to speak of a tendency towards sin. Thus they believe Mary was born without sin, but so is everyone else. However, Orthodox still affirm Mary was "immaculate" (i.e., sinless) in that the grace of God preserved her from any actual sin during her lifetime.
Unlike the Virgin Birth and the Assumption of Mary, the doctrine of the Immaculate Conception has not gone uncontested within the Catholic Church. It was the source of great controversy among medieval theologians, primarily because it was believed original sin was passed on to one's offspring through the sexual act and no one denied Mary was born in the natural way. Those opposing the doctrine included St. Anselm of Canterbury and the Dominicans; it was defended and explained by Anselm's student Eadmer, Duns Scotus, the Franciscans and the Jesuits. The Assumption of Mary was formally affirmed and defined for Roman Catholics in 1854. {1}
Mary as Virgin Mother
The notion that Mary gave birth to Jesus while remaining a virgin is taught explicitly in the birth narratives of Matthew (1:18 ff.) and Luke (1:34 ff.), but these seem to be the only references to the Virgin Birth in the New Testament. The Gospel of Mark begins with Jesus as an adult, and the Gospel of John, while beginning with Jesus' pre-birth existence, does not mention any miraculous aspects of Jesus' birth. Galatians 4:4, the earliest allusion to Mary in Christian literature, states only that Jesus was "born of woman." Most scholars do not attach special significance to this phrase on the basis that "as parallels such as Job 14:1 and Matthew 11:11 suggest, the phrase is a Hebraic way of speaking about the essential humanity of a person." {3}
After the New Testament, the doctrine of the Virgin Birth became prominent. It appeared frequently in early Christian literature, it was formalized in the ecumenical creeds, and it was accepted by the Reformers, who rejected most other Catholic doctrines regarding Mary. Today, the Virgin Birth continues to be accepted by Catholics, Orthodox, and Protestants alike.
Mary as Theotokos or the Mother of God
The doctrine of Mary to attract the most controversy within Christianity is her title of Theotokos (Greek for "God-bearer" or "Mother of God"). This term first arose in Alexandria, Egypt, around the fourth century and quickly gained popularity. Despite centering on a title for Mary, the issue actually has much more to do with Christology. The notion of Mary as God-bearer was intended to reflect the then-established belief that Jesus was fully divine. However, for some (most notably Nestorius), it did so at the expense of Jesus' full humanity. In 431, the Council of Ephesus affirmed the use of Theotokos as acceptable and condemned Nestorius. Today, Theotokos is used often by Orthodox Christians as a synonym for Mary, and Catholics regularly refer to Mary as Mother of God.
Mary as Perpetual Virgin
Roman Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy teach that Mary was not only a virgin before she gave birth to Jesus, but she remained a virgin her entire life. Some Protestants also hold this view, including Luther, Zwingli, and Calvin, but most modern Protestants believe she later had other children with Joseph since the Bible speaks of Jesus' brothers and sisters. Catholics and Orthodox explain references to Jesus' brothers as either cousins, or as step brothers who were Joseph's children by a prior marriage. {2}
The Assumption of Mary
According to Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox tradition, between three and fifteen years after Christ's Ascension, in either Jerusalem or Ephesus, Mary died while surrounded by the apostles. Later when the apostles opened her tomb, they found it empty and concluded that she had been bodily assumed into Heaven. {2}
This doctrine was present in apocryphal works since the end of the fourth century, and was formally taught by St. Gregory of Tours in the sixth century. The bodily Assumption of Mary seems to have been accepted in both Western and Eastern Churches from the sixth century onwards, and went virtually uncontested until the Reformation. {1}
In 1950, speaking ex cathedra (infallibly) in his encyclical Munificentissimus Deus, Pope Pius XII proclaimed the Dogma of the Assumption, in which he stated that "at the end of her earthly course, Mary was assumed into heavenly glory, body and soul." {4}
Mary as Coredemptrix and Mediatrix of All Graces
An additional doctrine of Mary believed by many Catholics, but not yet formalized by the Pope, is that of Mary as Coredemptrix. This title indicates that Mary participated in some way in Christ's redemption of mankind. At its simplest, this doctrine is based on Mary's free acceptance of her opportunity to give birth to the Savior, as indicated by her reply, "May it be unto me as you have said" (Lk 1:38). This event is sometimes referred to as the "guarantee of the Incarnation."
Over the years, however, the term Coredemptrix has come to denote a more active role for Mary than her assent. The Second Vatican Council declared, "in suffering with Him as He died on the cross, she cooperated in the work of the Savior, in an altogether singular way, by obedience, faith, hope, and burning love, to restore supernatural life to souls" (Lumen gentium 61-62). However, Catholic theologians differ as to the precise nature of Mary's participation in the redemption, and, as aforementioned, the Pope has yet to speak ex cathedra on the subject.
Closely related to this doctrine is that of Mary as Mediatrix of All Graces, which affirms that all graces Christ obtains for humanity are dispensed by and through Mary. The Second Vatican Council also touched on this subject when it stated that "the Blessed Virgin's salutary influence on men... flows from the superabundance of the merits of Christ, rests on His mediation, depends entirely on it, and draws all its power from it" (Lumen gentium 60). This also has not been formally affirmed by the pope, but it is popular among many Catholics.
A lay Catholic organization, the Vox Populi Mariae Mediatrici (Voice of the People for Mary Mediatrix), has been founded with the goal of winning formal recognition of the "fifth doctrine of Mary," which includes Mary as Coredemptrix, Mediatrix of All Graces, and Advocate for the People of God. The organization is currently collecting signatures that will be included with a letter to the Pope asking that he "define and proclaim the Blessed Virgin Mary as Coredemptrix, Mediatrix of all grace and Advocate for the People of God." {5}
Mary in Other Faiths
Islamic theology accepts that Jesus was the result of a virgin birth. The Quran tells the story of Maryam (Mary) in two places, 3:35-47 and 19:16-34, but provides much less detail than the New Testament. It says Maryam was dedicated to God's service by her mother while still in the womb (Quran 3:35), that she was cared for by Zakariya (Zecharias) (3:36), and that in her childhood God provided for her to help her grow strong and pious (3:37). God then sent an angel to announce that she could shortly expect to bear a son, specifying that "O Mary! Allah hath chosen thee and purified thee - chosen thee above the women of all nations." (Qur'an 3:42). It specifies that she conceived Jesus despite being a virgin: "She said: "O my Lord! How shall I have a son when no man hath touched me?" He said: "Even so: Allah createth what He willeth: When He hath decreed a plan, He but saith to it, 'Be,' and it is!" (3:47). {2}
Many followers of Wicca associate Mary with the Earth Mother of various Neo-pagan traditions. Some Buddhists have linked Mary to Kuan-Yin, a Bodhisattva of compassion venerated by various Chinese Buddhist faiths. {2} Followers of the New Age movement or those interested in general spirituality have also found inspiration in Mary (see Books on the Doctrine of Mary, below).
Christian Beliefs about Mary
“Henceforth all generations will call me blessed.”
--Mary, Luke 1:48
There are several Marys in the Bible, but by far the most important is Mary, the Mother of Jesus. She is known by many titles, including the Blessed Virgin Mary (sometimes abbreviated BVM), Queen of Heaven, Theotokos (Mother of God) and Our Lady (Notre-Dame in French; Madonna in Italian).
Because of her humility, piety and role as the mother of the Savior of humanity, Mary has been accorded great respect in all branches of Christianity and is a favorite subject in art, music and literature. In Catholic and Orthodox Churches, Mary is the pre-eminent saint and the focus of much popular devotion.
This article explores historical and modern Christian beliefs about Mary (known as "Mariology"), which includes such doctrines as the Immaculate Conception of Mary, the Virgin Birth of Christ, the perpetual virginity of Mary, the Assumption of Mary, Mary as "Theotokos," and Mary as Coredemptrix and Mediatrix.
Visions, shrines, feast days, the "Hail Mary" and other devotional practices related to Mary, which are important aspects of Mariology, will be treated in the Christian Practices section.
Mary in the New Testament
Mary in Apocryphal Texts
Mary in Early Christian Theology
Mary in the Reformation and Protestantism
The Immaculate Conception
Mary as Virgin Mother
Mary as Theotokos or Mother of God
Mary as Ever-Virgin
The Assumption of Mary
Mary as Coredemptrix and Mediatrix
Mary in Non-Christian Faiths
References
Related Articles
External Links on Mary
Books on Mary
Mary in the New Testament
The Virgin Mary plays a prominent role in the Gospels, especially in the birth stories of Mark (1-2) and Luke (1-2). According to Luke, Mary was of the tribe of Judah and the lineage of David (1:32).
When Mary was a young woman engaged to Joseph, the Angel Gabriele announced to her that she would give birth to a son that would be born of the Holy Spirit. Mary humbly accepted her divinely-appointed role, saying, "May it be unto me as you have said." She then conceived and gave birth to Jesus while remaining a virgin (Lk 1:31f; Mt 1:20, 23).
Mary appears periodically throughout Jesus' ministry, death and resurrection. She was present at Jesus' first miracle, which he performed reluctantly at her suggestion (John 2:1f).
At the crucifixion, Mary and a small group of women were present (Jn 19:25). Speaking from the cross, Jesus entrusted her care to his disciple John (Jn 19:26). One of Michaelangelo's most famous sculptures (right) depicts Mary mourning her son's death.
According to traditional interpretation, the Virgin Mary was not the "other Mary" who visited the tomb after Jesus' death (Matthew 28:1) – it is said she did not visit the tomb because she already knew he would not be there.
In addition, there is no biblical record of the resurrected Jesus appearing to Mary. In 1997, the Pope speculates that it is highly likely Jesus did appear to his mother (Vatican Information Services, May 21, 1997). After the resurrection, Mary was present in the Upper Room at Jerusalem with the disciples (Acts 1:14), but this is the last biblical mention of her.
Mary in Apocryphal Texts
The Gospel of James contains biographical material about Mary considered plausible by some Orthodox and Catholic Christians. It states she was the daughter of Joachim and Anna, who were quite old when she was conceived. They took her to live in the Temple in Jerusalem when she was three years old, as Hannah took Samuel to the Tabernacle in the Old Testament. The Gospel of James also teaches Mary's perpetual virginity.
Mary in Early Christian Theology
In the writings of the early church fathers, Mary is mentioned only occasionally and primarily in contrast to Eve. Justin Martyr (d. c.165) and Irenaeus (d. c.202) contrasted Mary's obedience with Eve's disobedience.
The apocryphal Gospel of James (as seen above), Irenaeus, Clement of Alexandria, and especially Athanasius affirmed Mary's perpetual virginity. This doctrine was accepted by both Western and Eastern Churches from the fifth century onwards.
The doctrine of Mary as Theotokos (God-bearer) arose in Alexandria and was probably first used by Origen. It became common in the fourth century, was opposed by Nestorius, and accepted at the Council of Ephesus in 431. Mary played a lesser role in the West than in the East at this time. Western theologians like St. Ambrose primarily spoke of Mary as a "type" or symbol of the Church.
The doctrine of the bodily Assumption of Mary was formally developed by St. Gregory of Tours (d. 594), although it had been present in apocryphal tests since the late fourth century. The Feast of the Assumption became widespread in the sixth century, and sermons on that occasion tended to emphasize Mary's power in heaven.
Mary in the Reformation and Protestantism
Despite the Reformer's rejection of the veneration of Mary and other saints, most Protestants have shown a great deal of honor and respect for Mary. Martin Luther said Mary is "the highest woman," that "we can never honour her enough," that "the veneration of Mary is inscribed in the very depths of the human heart" and that we should "wish that everyone know and respect her." John Calvin said, "It cannot be denied that God in choosing and destining Mary to be the Mother of his Son, granted her the highest honor." Zwingli said, "I esteem immensely the Mother of God," and, "The more the honor and love of Christ increases among men, so much the esteem and honor given to Mary should grow."
Most Reformers rejected the Immaculate Conception, and the Assumption of Mary, but some affirmed the perpetual virginity of Mary and all accepted the Virgin Birth.
Since the Reformation, Protestants have tended to pay little attention to Mary, primarily in reaction against the excessive level of adoration they believe is relegated to her in Catholic and Orthodox Christianity. But this may be beginning to change. In the summer of 2004, Christian History & Biography magazine (affiliated with the Protestant Christianity Today) dedicated an entire issue to Mary. Included were articles suggesting the value of making a larger place for her in Protestantism. {6} In December 2004, the Southern Baptist dean of an evangelical school in Alabama said:
I would like Protestants today, evangelicals today, to go back to the reformers. I don't think we have to become Roman Catholics or Eastern Orthodox believers to recover a truly Protestant, reformational, scriptural understanding of Mary. {7}
Professor Beverley Roberts Gaventa of Princeton Theological Seminary, whose writings have called for more Protestant emphasis of Mary agrees, pointing out:
What happens in the story is that Mary is chosen entirely by God's own initiative. This is a primary example of what Protestants emphasize as God's divine grace, God's initiative. {7}
The Immaculate Conception
The Most Blessed Virgin Mary was, from the first moment of her conception, by a singular grace and privilege of almighty God and by virtue of the merits of Jesus Christ, Savior of the human race, preserved immune from all stain of original sin.
-- Pope Pius IX, Ineffabilis Deus (1854)
According to the doctrine of the Immaculate Conception, Mary was born without the stain of original sin. Both Catholics and Orthodox accept this doctrine, but only the Roman Catholic Church has solemnly defined the teaching, and the title "Immaculate Conception" is generally used only by Catholics. Most Protestants reject the idea as having no foundation in Scripture.
In Eastern Orthodox Churches, the matter is seen somewhat differently. Orthodox Christians reject the western doctrine of original sin, preferring instead to speak of a tendency towards sin. Thus they believe Mary was born without sin, but so is everyone else. However, Orthodox still affirm Mary was "immaculate" (i.e., sinless) in that the grace of God preserved her from any actual sin during her lifetime.
Unlike the Virgin Birth and the Assumption of Mary, the doctrine of the Immaculate Conception has not gone uncontested within the Catholic Church. It was the source of great controversy among medieval theologians, primarily because it was believed original sin was passed on to one's offspring through the sexual act and no one denied Mary was born in the natural way. Those opposing the doctrine included St. Anselm of Canterbury and the Dominicans; it was defended and explained by Anselm's student Eadmer, Duns Scotus, the Franciscans and the Jesuits. The Assumption of Mary was formally affirmed and defined for Roman Catholics in 1854. {1}
Mary as Virgin Mother
The notion that Mary gave birth to Jesus while remaining a virgin is taught explicitly in the birth narratives of Matthew (1:18 ff.) and Luke (1:34 ff.), but these seem to be the only references to the Virgin Birth in the New Testament. The Gospel of Mark begins with Jesus as an adult, and the Gospel of John, while beginning with Jesus' pre-birth existence, does not mention any miraculous aspects of Jesus' birth. Galatians 4:4, the earliest allusion to Mary in Christian literature, states only that Jesus was "born of woman." Most scholars do not attach special significance to this phrase on the basis that "as parallels such as Job 14:1 and Matthew 11:11 suggest, the phrase is a Hebraic way of speaking about the essential humanity of a person." {3}
After the New Testament, the doctrine of the Virgin Birth became prominent. It appeared frequently in early Christian literature, it was formalized in the ecumenical creeds, and it was accepted by the Reformers, who rejected most other Catholic doctrines regarding Mary. Today, the Virgin Birth continues to be accepted by Catholics, Orthodox, and Protestants alike.
Mary as Theotokos or the Mother of God
The doctrine of Mary to attract the most controversy within Christianity is her title of Theotokos (Greek for "God-bearer" or "Mother of God"). This term first arose in Alexandria, Egypt, around the fourth century and quickly gained popularity. Despite centering on a title for Mary, the issue actually has much more to do with Christology. The notion of Mary as God-bearer was intended to reflect the then-established belief that Jesus was fully divine. However, for some (most notably Nestorius), it did so at the expense of Jesus' full humanity. In 431, the Council of Ephesus affirmed the use of Theotokos as acceptable and condemned Nestorius. Today, Theotokos is used often by Orthodox Christians as a synonym for Mary, and Catholics regularly refer to Mary as Mother of God.
Mary as Perpetual Virgin
Roman Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy teach that Mary was not only a virgin before she gave birth to Jesus, but she remained a virgin her entire life. Some Protestants also hold this view, including Luther, Zwingli, and Calvin, but most modern Protestants believe she later had other children with Joseph since the Bible speaks of Jesus' brothers and sisters. Catholics and Orthodox explain references to Jesus' brothers as either cousins, or as step brothers who were Joseph's children by a prior marriage. {2}
The Assumption of Mary
According to Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox tradition, between three and fifteen years after Christ's Ascension, in either Jerusalem or Ephesus, Mary died while surrounded by the apostles. Later when the apostles opened her tomb, they found it empty and concluded that she had been bodily assumed into Heaven. {2}
This doctrine was present in apocryphal works since the end of the fourth century, and was formally taught by St. Gregory of Tours in the sixth century. The bodily Assumption of Mary seems to have been accepted in both Western and Eastern Churches from the sixth century onwards, and went virtually uncontested until the Reformation. {1}
In 1950, speaking ex cathedra (infallibly) in his encyclical Munificentissimus Deus, Pope Pius XII proclaimed the Dogma of the Assumption, in which he stated that "at the end of her earthly course, Mary was assumed into heavenly glory, body and soul." {4}
Mary as Coredemptrix and Mediatrix of All Graces
An additional doctrine of Mary believed by many Catholics, but not yet formalized by the Pope, is that of Mary as Coredemptrix. This title indicates that Mary participated in some way in Christ's redemption of mankind. At its simplest, this doctrine is based on Mary's free acceptance of her opportunity to give birth to the Savior, as indicated by her reply, "May it be unto me as you have said" (Lk 1:38). This event is sometimes referred to as the "guarantee of the Incarnation."
Over the years, however, the term Coredemptrix has come to denote a more active role for Mary than her assent. The Second Vatican Council declared, "in suffering with Him as He died on the cross, she cooperated in the work of the Savior, in an altogether singular way, by obedience, faith, hope, and burning love, to restore supernatural life to souls" (Lumen gentium 61-62). However, Catholic theologians differ as to the precise nature of Mary's participation in the redemption, and, as aforementioned, the Pope has yet to speak ex cathedra on the subject.
Closely related to this doctrine is that of Mary as Mediatrix of All Graces, which affirms that all graces Christ obtains for humanity are dispensed by and through Mary. The Second Vatican Council also touched on this subject when it stated that "the Blessed Virgin's salutary influence on men... flows from the superabundance of the merits of Christ, rests on His mediation, depends entirely on it, and draws all its power from it" (Lumen gentium 60). This also has not been formally affirmed by the pope, but it is popular among many Catholics.
A lay Catholic organization, the Vox Populi Mariae Mediatrici (Voice of the People for Mary Mediatrix), has been founded with the goal of winning formal recognition of the "fifth doctrine of Mary," which includes Mary as Coredemptrix, Mediatrix of All Graces, and Advocate for the People of God. The organization is currently collecting signatures that will be included with a letter to the Pope asking that he "define and proclaim the Blessed Virgin Mary as Coredemptrix, Mediatrix of all grace and Advocate for the People of God." {5}
Mary in Other Faiths
Islamic theology accepts that Jesus was the result of a virgin birth. The Quran tells the story of Maryam (Mary) in two places, 3:35-47 and 19:16-34, but provides much less detail than the New Testament. It says Maryam was dedicated to God's service by her mother while still in the womb (Quran 3:35), that she was cared for by Zakariya (Zecharias) (3:36), and that in her childhood God provided for her to help her grow strong and pious (3:37). God then sent an angel to announce that she could shortly expect to bear a son, specifying that "O Mary! Allah hath chosen thee and purified thee - chosen thee above the women of all nations." (Qur'an 3:42). It specifies that she conceived Jesus despite being a virgin: "She said: "O my Lord! How shall I have a son when no man hath touched me?" He said: "Even so: Allah createth what He willeth: When He hath decreed a plan, He but saith to it, 'Be,' and it is!" (3:47). {2}
Many followers of Wicca associate Mary with the Earth Mother of various Neo-pagan traditions. Some Buddhists have linked Mary to Kuan-Yin, a Bodhisattva of compassion venerated by various Chinese Buddhist faiths. {2} Followers of the New Age movement or those interested in general spirituality have also found inspiration in Mary (see Books on the Doctrine of Mary, below).
The End Times
Come, O Lord"
- 1 Corinthians 16:22
All Christians believe that Jesus Christ will return one day, an event also known as The Second Coming. The Bible teaches that he will come back to the earth at an unknown time to destroy the enemies of God, rid the world of sin, reward followers, and establish peace.
In Revelation 19:11 reads, "I saw heaven standing open and there before me was a white horse, whose rider is called Faithful and True." This picturesque return of Christ is the culmination of predetermined events that will lead to the end of the world as it is now known. Because Christians interpret key texts differently, they differ as to what events lead to Christ's second advent.
The three eschatological (eschatos is Greek for "last things") views that have been the most popular in the history of the Church are postmillennialism, amillennialism, and premillennialism. Like the etymologies their names suggest, differences center on the milennial period as recorded in Revelation 20:1-6,
"And I saw an angel coming down out of heaven, having the key to the Abyss and holding in his hand a great chain. 2 He seized the dragon, that ancient serpent, who is the devil, or Satan, and bound him for a thousand years. 3 He threw him into the Abyss, and locked and sealed it over him, to keep him from deceiving the nations anymore until the thousand years were ended. After that, he must be set free for a short time. 4 I saw thrones on which were seated those who had been given authority to judge. And I saw the souls of those who had been beheaded because of their testimony for Jesus and because of the word of God. They had not worshiped the beast or his image and had not received his mark on their foreheads or their hands. They came to life and reigned with Christ a thousand years. 5 (The rest of the dead did not come to life until the thousand years were ended.) This is the first resurrection. 6 Blessed and holy are those who have part in the first resurrection. The second death has no power over them, but they will be priests of God and of Christ and will reign with him for a thousand years" (NIV)
The word millennium is derived from the Latin word "mille" meaning one-thousand. Whether the millennial period as described Revelation should be understood as literal or figurative is at the core interpretative disagreements. Other significant points of disagreement are what events, if any, the Bible teaches will precede the millennial period, what activities will occur within it, and if Jew and Gentile are distinguished at that time.
Postmillennialism
Postmillennialism holds that the Second Coming of Christ will occur after the millennial period. The position argues that the Kingdom of God, which exists in the present-day, will be extended throughout the world by means of the Church's proclamation of the gospel.
Postmillennialism can be graphed in the following way:
Christ Second Coming
____|_________________________________________________|__________________________________
Church Age >>>>>>>>>> The Millennium The Eternal State
Read the complete article on Postmillennialism.
Amillennialism
Amillennialists believe the millennium began with Christ’s first coming and will continue until the Second Coming. Numerically, this is the most dominant eschatological position in the history of Christianity.
Amillennialism can be graphed in the following way:
Christ Second Coming
____|_________________________________________________|_________________________________
Church Age = The Millennium The Eternal State
Read complete article on Amillennialism.
Premillennialism
Premillennialism teaches that the Second Coming of Christ will occur before the millennial period, which they interpret literally as 1,000 years. Within the position, premillennialists are either "historic" or “dispensational." Both are categorized under the heading “premillennialism” because both believe that the Second Coming will occur prior to the millennial period.
Historic premillennialism can be graphed in the following way:
Christ Rapture/Second Coming
______|___________________|____________________|_______________________|_________________
Church Age The Tribulation The Millennium The Eternal State
Dispensational premillennialism can be graphed in the following way:
Christ Rapture Second Coming
_______|______________________|______________________|___________________|_______________
Church Age The Tribulation The Millennium The Eternal State
- 1 Corinthians 16:22
All Christians believe that Jesus Christ will return one day, an event also known as The Second Coming. The Bible teaches that he will come back to the earth at an unknown time to destroy the enemies of God, rid the world of sin, reward followers, and establish peace.
In Revelation 19:11 reads, "I saw heaven standing open and there before me was a white horse, whose rider is called Faithful and True." This picturesque return of Christ is the culmination of predetermined events that will lead to the end of the world as it is now known. Because Christians interpret key texts differently, they differ as to what events lead to Christ's second advent.
The three eschatological (eschatos is Greek for "last things") views that have been the most popular in the history of the Church are postmillennialism, amillennialism, and premillennialism. Like the etymologies their names suggest, differences center on the milennial period as recorded in Revelation 20:1-6,
"And I saw an angel coming down out of heaven, having the key to the Abyss and holding in his hand a great chain. 2 He seized the dragon, that ancient serpent, who is the devil, or Satan, and bound him for a thousand years. 3 He threw him into the Abyss, and locked and sealed it over him, to keep him from deceiving the nations anymore until the thousand years were ended. After that, he must be set free for a short time. 4 I saw thrones on which were seated those who had been given authority to judge. And I saw the souls of those who had been beheaded because of their testimony for Jesus and because of the word of God. They had not worshiped the beast or his image and had not received his mark on their foreheads or their hands. They came to life and reigned with Christ a thousand years. 5 (The rest of the dead did not come to life until the thousand years were ended.) This is the first resurrection. 6 Blessed and holy are those who have part in the first resurrection. The second death has no power over them, but they will be priests of God and of Christ and will reign with him for a thousand years" (NIV)
The word millennium is derived from the Latin word "mille" meaning one-thousand. Whether the millennial period as described Revelation should be understood as literal or figurative is at the core interpretative disagreements. Other significant points of disagreement are what events, if any, the Bible teaches will precede the millennial period, what activities will occur within it, and if Jew and Gentile are distinguished at that time.
Postmillennialism
Postmillennialism holds that the Second Coming of Christ will occur after the millennial period. The position argues that the Kingdom of God, which exists in the present-day, will be extended throughout the world by means of the Church's proclamation of the gospel.
Postmillennialism can be graphed in the following way:
Christ Second Coming
____|_________________________________________________|__________________________________
Church Age >>>>>>>>>> The Millennium The Eternal State
Read the complete article on Postmillennialism.
Amillennialism
Amillennialists believe the millennium began with Christ’s first coming and will continue until the Second Coming. Numerically, this is the most dominant eschatological position in the history of Christianity.
Amillennialism can be graphed in the following way:
Christ Second Coming
____|_________________________________________________|_________________________________
Church Age = The Millennium The Eternal State
Read complete article on Amillennialism.
Premillennialism
Premillennialism teaches that the Second Coming of Christ will occur before the millennial period, which they interpret literally as 1,000 years. Within the position, premillennialists are either "historic" or “dispensational." Both are categorized under the heading “premillennialism” because both believe that the Second Coming will occur prior to the millennial period.
Historic premillennialism can be graphed in the following way:
Christ Rapture/Second Coming
______|___________________|____________________|_______________________|_________________
Church Age The Tribulation The Millennium The Eternal State
Dispensational premillennialism can be graphed in the following way:
Christ Rapture Second Coming
_______|______________________|______________________|___________________|_______________
Church Age The Tribulation The Millennium The Eternal State
Christian Beliefs on the Devil and Demons
Jesus rebuked the demon, and it came out of the boy, and he was healed from that moment."
-- Matthew 17:18, NIV
"The demon threw him to the ground in a convulsion. But Jesus rebuked the evil spirit, healed the boy and gave him back to his father. And they were all amazed at the greatness of God."
-- Luke 9:42-3
"Your enemy the devil prowls around like a roaring lion looking for someone to devour. Resist him, standing firm in the faith."
-- 1 Peter 5:8-9
In Christian belief, angels were created good but were endowed with free will just as humans were. Some of them rebelled against God, were banished from heaven, and became demons. The English word "demon" derives from the Greek daemon (δαίμων), which originally referred to any spirit but came to be associated with only evil spirits.
In Christian teaching, the leader of the rebellious angels was Satan, who has became humanity's chief adversary. He is identified with the serpent who tempts Adam and Eve in Genesis.
In New Testament times, daemon had a number of meanings, all related to the idea of a spirit that inhabited a place or accompanied a person. Whether a daemon was benevolent or malevolent, the Greek word most meant something different from the later medieval notions of 'demon', and scholars debate the time in which first century usage by Jews and Christians in its original Greek sense became transformed to the later medieval sense.
There is a description in the Book of Revelation 12:7-17 of a battle between God's army and Satan's followers and their subsequent expulsion from Heaven to earth to persecute humans. In Luke 10:18 it is mentioned that a power granted by Jesus to control demons made Satan "fall like lightning from heaven."
Saint Augustine's reading of Plotinus, in City of God (ch. 11) is ambiguous as to whether daemons had become 'demonized' by the early 5th century:
"He (Plotinus) also states that the blessed are called in Greek eudaimones, because they are good souls, that is to say, good demons, confirming his opinion that the souls of men are demons." (City of God, ch. 11.—Of the Opinion of the Platonists, that the Souls of Men Become Demons When Disembodied)
In any case, the Catholic Church unequivocally teaches that angels and demons are real personal beings, not just symbolic devices of literature and myth (see Fr. John Corapi's article). The Catholic Church has a cadre of exorcists, who teach that demons attack humans and that Christ came to deliver us from Satan's evil rule by power in this fashion. According to the Catholic Church, demonically afflicted persons can be effectively healed and protected either by the formal rite of exorcism, authorized to be performed only by bishops and those they designate, or by prayers of deliverance which any Christian can offer for themselves or others.
Building upon the few references to demons in the New Testement, especially the visionary poetry of the Apocalypse of John, Christian writers of apocrypha from the 2nd century onwards created a more complicated tapestry of beliefs about "demons" that was independent of Christian scripture.
According to Christian mythology, When God created angels, he offered them the same choice he was to offer humanity: follow, or be cast apart from him. Some angels chose not to follow God, instead choosing the path of evil. One of these angels desired to be as powerful as God, and seduced a host of his companions to follow him against their ruler, to become himself the new sovereign. This rebellious angel was named Satan (lit. "adversary").
According to popular tradition, the fall of Satan is portrayed in Ezekiel 28:12-19 and Isaiah 14:12-14. Christian mythology built upon later Jewish traditions that Satan and his host declared war with God, but God's army, commanded by the archangel Michael (archangel), defeated the rebels. Their defeat was never in question, but Michael was given the honor of victory in the natural order. God then cast his enemies from Heaven to the abyss of the earth, into a newly created prison called Hell where all his enemies should be sentenced to an eternal existence of pain and misery. This pain is not all physical; for their crimes, these angels, now called demons, would be deprived of the sight of God (2 Thessalonians 1:9), this being the worst possible punishment.
An indefinite time later, when God created the earth and humans, Satan and the other demons were allowed to tempt humans or induce them to sin by other means. The first time Satan did this was in the earthly paradise or Garden of Eden to tempt Eve, who subsequently drew her husband Adam into her crime. Upon their failure, as part of the punishment, the permission granted to Satan and his demons to tempt the first humans away from their Creator will now last until the end of this world for all people.
According to Christian demonology demons will be eternally punished and never reconciled with God, as it is mentioned in the Bible. Other theories alleging the reconciliation of Satan, the fallen angels, the souls of the dead that were condemned to Hell, and God are not part of Christian demonology or literal scripture but the theory of the Unification Church. Origen, Jerome and Gregory of Nyssa mentioned this possibility before it was generally accepted that the fallen state is eternal.
In contemporary Christianity, demons are generally considered to be angels who fell from grace by rebelling against God. However, this view, championed by Origen, Augustine and John Chrysostom, arose during the 6th century. Prior to that time, the primary sin of fallen angels was considered to be that of mating with mortal women, giving rise to a race of half-human giants known as the Nephilim.
There are still others who say that the sin of the angels was pride and disobedience. It seems quite certain that these were the sins that caused Satan's downfall (Ezek. 28). If this be the true view then we are to understand the words, "estate" or "principality" in Deuteronomy 32:8 and Jude 6 ("And the angels which kept not their first estate, but left their own habitation, he hath reserved in everlasting chains under darkness unto the judgment of the great day.") as indicating that instead of being satisfied with the dignity once for all assigned to them under the Son of God, they aspired higher. {1}
-- Matthew 17:18, NIV
"The demon threw him to the ground in a convulsion. But Jesus rebuked the evil spirit, healed the boy and gave him back to his father. And they were all amazed at the greatness of God."
-- Luke 9:42-3
"Your enemy the devil prowls around like a roaring lion looking for someone to devour. Resist him, standing firm in the faith."
-- 1 Peter 5:8-9
In Christian belief, angels were created good but were endowed with free will just as humans were. Some of them rebelled against God, were banished from heaven, and became demons. The English word "demon" derives from the Greek daemon (δαίμων), which originally referred to any spirit but came to be associated with only evil spirits.
In Christian teaching, the leader of the rebellious angels was Satan, who has became humanity's chief adversary. He is identified with the serpent who tempts Adam and Eve in Genesis.
In New Testament times, daemon had a number of meanings, all related to the idea of a spirit that inhabited a place or accompanied a person. Whether a daemon was benevolent or malevolent, the Greek word most meant something different from the later medieval notions of 'demon', and scholars debate the time in which first century usage by Jews and Christians in its original Greek sense became transformed to the later medieval sense.
There is a description in the Book of Revelation 12:7-17 of a battle between God's army and Satan's followers and their subsequent expulsion from Heaven to earth to persecute humans. In Luke 10:18 it is mentioned that a power granted by Jesus to control demons made Satan "fall like lightning from heaven."
Saint Augustine's reading of Plotinus, in City of God (ch. 11) is ambiguous as to whether daemons had become 'demonized' by the early 5th century:
"He (Plotinus) also states that the blessed are called in Greek eudaimones, because they are good souls, that is to say, good demons, confirming his opinion that the souls of men are demons." (City of God, ch. 11.—Of the Opinion of the Platonists, that the Souls of Men Become Demons When Disembodied)
In any case, the Catholic Church unequivocally teaches that angels and demons are real personal beings, not just symbolic devices of literature and myth (see Fr. John Corapi's article). The Catholic Church has a cadre of exorcists, who teach that demons attack humans and that Christ came to deliver us from Satan's evil rule by power in this fashion. According to the Catholic Church, demonically afflicted persons can be effectively healed and protected either by the formal rite of exorcism, authorized to be performed only by bishops and those they designate, or by prayers of deliverance which any Christian can offer for themselves or others.
Building upon the few references to demons in the New Testement, especially the visionary poetry of the Apocalypse of John, Christian writers of apocrypha from the 2nd century onwards created a more complicated tapestry of beliefs about "demons" that was independent of Christian scripture.
According to Christian mythology, When God created angels, he offered them the same choice he was to offer humanity: follow, or be cast apart from him. Some angels chose not to follow God, instead choosing the path of evil. One of these angels desired to be as powerful as God, and seduced a host of his companions to follow him against their ruler, to become himself the new sovereign. This rebellious angel was named Satan (lit. "adversary").
According to popular tradition, the fall of Satan is portrayed in Ezekiel 28:12-19 and Isaiah 14:12-14. Christian mythology built upon later Jewish traditions that Satan and his host declared war with God, but God's army, commanded by the archangel Michael (archangel), defeated the rebels. Their defeat was never in question, but Michael was given the honor of victory in the natural order. God then cast his enemies from Heaven to the abyss of the earth, into a newly created prison called Hell where all his enemies should be sentenced to an eternal existence of pain and misery. This pain is not all physical; for their crimes, these angels, now called demons, would be deprived of the sight of God (2 Thessalonians 1:9), this being the worst possible punishment.
An indefinite time later, when God created the earth and humans, Satan and the other demons were allowed to tempt humans or induce them to sin by other means. The first time Satan did this was in the earthly paradise or Garden of Eden to tempt Eve, who subsequently drew her husband Adam into her crime. Upon their failure, as part of the punishment, the permission granted to Satan and his demons to tempt the first humans away from their Creator will now last until the end of this world for all people.
According to Christian demonology demons will be eternally punished and never reconciled with God, as it is mentioned in the Bible. Other theories alleging the reconciliation of Satan, the fallen angels, the souls of the dead that were condemned to Hell, and God are not part of Christian demonology or literal scripture but the theory of the Unification Church. Origen, Jerome and Gregory of Nyssa mentioned this possibility before it was generally accepted that the fallen state is eternal.
In contemporary Christianity, demons are generally considered to be angels who fell from grace by rebelling against God. However, this view, championed by Origen, Augustine and John Chrysostom, arose during the 6th century. Prior to that time, the primary sin of fallen angels was considered to be that of mating with mortal women, giving rise to a race of half-human giants known as the Nephilim.
There are still others who say that the sin of the angels was pride and disobedience. It seems quite certain that these were the sins that caused Satan's downfall (Ezek. 28). If this be the true view then we are to understand the words, "estate" or "principality" in Deuteronomy 32:8 and Jude 6 ("And the angels which kept not their first estate, but left their own habitation, he hath reserved in everlasting chains under darkness unto the judgment of the great day.") as indicating that instead of being satisfied with the dignity once for all assigned to them under the Son of God, they aspired higher. {1}
Christian Beliefs about Angels
"God sent the angel Gabriel to Nazareth, a town in Galilee, to a virgin pledged to be married to a man named Joseph, a descendent of David. The virgin's name was Mary."
--Luke 1:26-27, NIV
"Are not all angels ministering spirits sent to serve those who will inherit salvation?"
--Hebrews 1:14, NIV
According to a March 2004 Gallup poll, belief in angels and demons is on the rise, at least in the United States. In 1994, 72% of Americans said they believed in angels; in 2004, 78% indicated belief in angels. Belief in the devil has risen even more dramatically, increasing from 55% in 1990 to 70% in 2004. 1
Other English-speaking countries are more skeptical, however. In November 2004, a Gallup poll showed that 56% of Canadians and 36% of Britons believe in angels and only 37% of Canadians and 29% of Britons believe in the devil. 2
Belief in angels is common to Christianity, Judaism and Islam. The concept of angelic beings is very similar in all three faiths: angels are spiritual beings who were created by God before the world was created. Their role is to glorify God, minister to God, and, especially, act as God's messengers to humans in matters of great importance (such as the announcement to Mary in Christianity and the revelation of the Qur'an in Islam). They are also helpers and guardians of the faithful.
Angels in the New Testament
In the New Testament, angels appear frequently as the ministers of God and the agents of revelation (Matt 1:20 to Joseph, 4:11 to Jesus, Luke 1:26 to Mary, Acts 12:7 to Peter); and Jesus speaks of angels as fulfilling such functions (Mark 8:38, 13:27), implying in one saying that they neither marry nor are given in marriage (Mark 12:25). Angels are most prominent in Revelation.
The New Testament takes little interest in the idea of the angelic hierarchy that developed later, but there are traces of the doctrine. The distinction of good and bad angels is recognized; there are names: Gabriel (Luke 1:19), the evil angels Abaddon or Apollyon (Rev. 9:11), Beelzebub (Mark 3:22) and Satan (Mark 1:13); ranks are implied: archangels (Michael, Jude 9), principalities and powers (Rom. 8:38; Col. 2:10), thrones and dominions (Col 1:16). Angels occur in groups of four or seven (Rev 7:1).
In Rev 1-3 we meet with the "Angels" of the Seven Churches of Asia Minor. These are probably guardian angels, standing to the churches in the same relation that the "princes" in Daniel stand to the nations; practically the "angels" are personifications of the churches. A less likely view is that the "angels" are the human representatives of the churches, the bishops or chief presbyters.
The angel Gabriel appeared to Mary in the traditional role of messenger to inform her that her child would be the Messiah, and other angels were present to herald his birth. An angel appeared at Jesus' tomb, frightened the Roman guards, rolled away the stone from the tomb, and later told the myrrh-bearing women of Jesus' resurrection. Two angels witnessed Jesus' ascent into Heaven and prophesied his return. When Peter was imprisoned, an angel put his guards to sleep, released him from his chains, and led him out of the prison. Angels fill a number of different roles in the book of Revelation. Among other things, they are seen gathered around the Throne of God singing the "Holy, holy, holy" hymn.
Artistic and Literary Depictions of Angels in Christianity
Angels are frequently depicted as human in appearance, though many theologians have argued that they have no physical existence. (Hence the frequently recounted tale of Scholastics arguing about how many angels could fit on a pinhead; if angels possess physical bodies, the answer is "a finite number", if they do not, the answer is "an infinite number".) Seraphim are often depicted as six wings radiating from a center — either concealing a body, or without a body.
Beginning in the end of the 4th century, angels were depicted with wings, presumably to give an easy explanation for them travelling to and from heaven or to depict them as spirits. Scholastic theologians teach that angels are able to reason instantly, and to move instantly. They also teach that angels are intermediaries to some forces that would otherwise be natural forces of the universe, such as the rotation of planets and the motion of stars. Angels possess the beatific vision, or the unencumbered understanding of God (the essence of the pleasure of heaven). Furthermore, there are more angels then there are anything else in the universe (although when first written this would have probably not included atoms since atomic structure was not known).
Religious thought about the angels during the middle ages was much influenced by the theory of the angelic hierarchy set forth in the The Celestial Hierarchy, written in the 5th century in the name of Dionysius the Areopagite. The creeds and confessions do not formulate any authoritative doctrine of angels; and modern rationalism has tended to deny the existence of such beings, or to regard the subject as one on which we can have no certain knowledge. The principle of continuity, however, seems to require the existence of beings intermediate between man and God.
Some Christian traditions hold that angels are organized into three major Hierarchies which are subdivided into orders or Choirs, and list as many as ten orders of angels. This is particularly clear in the above-mentioned The Celestial Hierarchy, which gives the names that have become part of tradition: Angels, Archangels, Principalities, Powers, Virtues, Dominions, Thrones, Cherubim, and Seraphim. In this hierarchy, the Cherubim and Seraphim are typically closest to God, while the Angels and Archangels are most active in human affairs. Many of these names come from verses in the Bible which would appear at first to be referencing a literal thing, although retroactively suggesting that they really mention angels can also make sense in the context. For example the verse in Paul "our struggle is not with earthly things but with principalities and powers" (meaning, according to most theologians, the fallen angels of those choirs, used as an example of all the fallen angels).
Some Christian traditions also hold that angels play a variety of specific roles in the lives of believers. For instance, each Christian may be assigned a guardian angel at their baptism (although never defined by the Catholic or Orthodox churches, this is personally held by many church members and theologians). Each consecrated altar has at least one angel always present offering up prayers, and a number of angels join the congregation when they meet to pray. In the story of the 40 martyrs of Sebaste, in which 40 Christian Roman soldiers were made to stand naked on a frozen lake in the snow until they renounced their faith, angels were seen descending from Heaven placing the crowns of martyrs on their heads.
Certain Christian traditions, especially the Protestant Reformed tradition, hold that references to the "Angel of the Lord" are references to pre-Incarnation appearances of Jesus.
In many informal folk beliefs among Christians concerning the afterlife, the souls of the virtuous dead ascend into Heaven to be converted into angels. However, this belief is not supported by the Bible and theologians are quick to discount it. 3
--Luke 1:26-27, NIV
"Are not all angels ministering spirits sent to serve those who will inherit salvation?"
--Hebrews 1:14, NIV
According to a March 2004 Gallup poll, belief in angels and demons is on the rise, at least in the United States. In 1994, 72% of Americans said they believed in angels; in 2004, 78% indicated belief in angels. Belief in the devil has risen even more dramatically, increasing from 55% in 1990 to 70% in 2004. 1
Other English-speaking countries are more skeptical, however. In November 2004, a Gallup poll showed that 56% of Canadians and 36% of Britons believe in angels and only 37% of Canadians and 29% of Britons believe in the devil. 2
Belief in angels is common to Christianity, Judaism and Islam. The concept of angelic beings is very similar in all three faiths: angels are spiritual beings who were created by God before the world was created. Their role is to glorify God, minister to God, and, especially, act as God's messengers to humans in matters of great importance (such as the announcement to Mary in Christianity and the revelation of the Qur'an in Islam). They are also helpers and guardians of the faithful.
Angels in the New Testament
In the New Testament, angels appear frequently as the ministers of God and the agents of revelation (Matt 1:20 to Joseph, 4:11 to Jesus, Luke 1:26 to Mary, Acts 12:7 to Peter); and Jesus speaks of angels as fulfilling such functions (Mark 8:38, 13:27), implying in one saying that they neither marry nor are given in marriage (Mark 12:25). Angels are most prominent in Revelation.
The New Testament takes little interest in the idea of the angelic hierarchy that developed later, but there are traces of the doctrine. The distinction of good and bad angels is recognized; there are names: Gabriel (Luke 1:19), the evil angels Abaddon or Apollyon (Rev. 9:11), Beelzebub (Mark 3:22) and Satan (Mark 1:13); ranks are implied: archangels (Michael, Jude 9), principalities and powers (Rom. 8:38; Col. 2:10), thrones and dominions (Col 1:16). Angels occur in groups of four or seven (Rev 7:1).
In Rev 1-3 we meet with the "Angels" of the Seven Churches of Asia Minor. These are probably guardian angels, standing to the churches in the same relation that the "princes" in Daniel stand to the nations; practically the "angels" are personifications of the churches. A less likely view is that the "angels" are the human representatives of the churches, the bishops or chief presbyters.
The angel Gabriel appeared to Mary in the traditional role of messenger to inform her that her child would be the Messiah, and other angels were present to herald his birth. An angel appeared at Jesus' tomb, frightened the Roman guards, rolled away the stone from the tomb, and later told the myrrh-bearing women of Jesus' resurrection. Two angels witnessed Jesus' ascent into Heaven and prophesied his return. When Peter was imprisoned, an angel put his guards to sleep, released him from his chains, and led him out of the prison. Angels fill a number of different roles in the book of Revelation. Among other things, they are seen gathered around the Throne of God singing the "Holy, holy, holy" hymn.
Artistic and Literary Depictions of Angels in Christianity
Angels are frequently depicted as human in appearance, though many theologians have argued that they have no physical existence. (Hence the frequently recounted tale of Scholastics arguing about how many angels could fit on a pinhead; if angels possess physical bodies, the answer is "a finite number", if they do not, the answer is "an infinite number".) Seraphim are often depicted as six wings radiating from a center — either concealing a body, or without a body.
Beginning in the end of the 4th century, angels were depicted with wings, presumably to give an easy explanation for them travelling to and from heaven or to depict them as spirits. Scholastic theologians teach that angels are able to reason instantly, and to move instantly. They also teach that angels are intermediaries to some forces that would otherwise be natural forces of the universe, such as the rotation of planets and the motion of stars. Angels possess the beatific vision, or the unencumbered understanding of God (the essence of the pleasure of heaven). Furthermore, there are more angels then there are anything else in the universe (although when first written this would have probably not included atoms since atomic structure was not known).
Religious thought about the angels during the middle ages was much influenced by the theory of the angelic hierarchy set forth in the The Celestial Hierarchy, written in the 5th century in the name of Dionysius the Areopagite. The creeds and confessions do not formulate any authoritative doctrine of angels; and modern rationalism has tended to deny the existence of such beings, or to regard the subject as one on which we can have no certain knowledge. The principle of continuity, however, seems to require the existence of beings intermediate between man and God.
Some Christian traditions hold that angels are organized into three major Hierarchies which are subdivided into orders or Choirs, and list as many as ten orders of angels. This is particularly clear in the above-mentioned The Celestial Hierarchy, which gives the names that have become part of tradition: Angels, Archangels, Principalities, Powers, Virtues, Dominions, Thrones, Cherubim, and Seraphim. In this hierarchy, the Cherubim and Seraphim are typically closest to God, while the Angels and Archangels are most active in human affairs. Many of these names come from verses in the Bible which would appear at first to be referencing a literal thing, although retroactively suggesting that they really mention angels can also make sense in the context. For example the verse in Paul "our struggle is not with earthly things but with principalities and powers" (meaning, according to most theologians, the fallen angels of those choirs, used as an example of all the fallen angels).
Some Christian traditions also hold that angels play a variety of specific roles in the lives of believers. For instance, each Christian may be assigned a guardian angel at their baptism (although never defined by the Catholic or Orthodox churches, this is personally held by many church members and theologians). Each consecrated altar has at least one angel always present offering up prayers, and a number of angels join the congregation when they meet to pray. In the story of the 40 martyrs of Sebaste, in which 40 Christian Roman soldiers were made to stand naked on a frozen lake in the snow until they renounced their faith, angels were seen descending from Heaven placing the crowns of martyrs on their heads.
Certain Christian traditions, especially the Protestant Reformed tradition, hold that references to the "Angel of the Lord" are references to pre-Incarnation appearances of Jesus.
In many informal folk beliefs among Christians concerning the afterlife, the souls of the virtuous dead ascend into Heaven to be converted into angels. However, this belief is not supported by the Bible and theologians are quick to discount it. 3
Christian Doctrine of the Holy Spirit
In Christian theology, the Holy Spirit is the Third Person of the Trinity, co-equal with the Father and the Son as a part of the Godhead. Being personal like the other members of the Trinity, the Spirit is referred to as a "he," not an "it."
The Holy Spirit is sometimes referred to as the Holy Ghost, particularly by conservative Pentecostal groups and the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. This name was used in the King James Bible (1611) and was the common term until the 20th century.
The branch of Christian theology concerned with the Holy Spirit is called Pneumatology. The following article explores Christian beliefs about the Holy Spirit as expressed in the Bible and Christian doctrines.
The Holy Spirit in the Old Testament
In the Old Testament, the Spirit (ruach) is an instrument of divine action in nature and in the human heart. Before the creation of the world, the Spirit was brooding over the waters (Gen. 1:2). The Spirit inspired the artistic skill of Bezaleel (Exod. 36:1), the triumphs of Joshua (Deut. 34:9), and the strength of Samson (Judges 14:6).
The Spirit enabled the prophets (Is 61:1) to enable them to communicate divine truth and empowered human moral purity and holiness (Ps. 51:11). In the Apocrypha, the Sprit became especially associated with wisdom and understanding (Ecclus. 39:6; Wisd. 7:7,9:17).
Of particular significance for Christians are the predictions that the Spirit would be the possession of the coming Davidic King (Is. 11:2) and of the Servant of the Lord (Is. 42:1), and that in the future there would be a dramatic extension of the Spirit's activities and power (Ezek. 36:26; Joel 2:28-32).
The Holy Spirit in the New Testament
In the Gospel of John, the emphasis is placed not upon what the Holy Spirit did for Jesus, but upon Jesus giving the spirit to his disciples. This "Higher" Christology, which was the most influential in the later development of Trinity doctrine, sees Jesus as a sacrificial lamb, and as coming among men in order to grant the Spirit of God to humanity.
Christians believe that it was the Holy Spirit whom Jesus mentioned as the promised "comforter" in John 14:26, and that it is the Holy Spirit who leads people to faith in Jesus and the one who gives them the ability to lead a Christian life. The Spirit dwells inside every true Christian. He is depicted as a 'counsellor' or 'helper' (paraclete in Greek), guiding them in the way of the truth. The 'Fruit of the Spirit' (i.e. the results of his work) should be "love, joy, peace, patience, kindness, goodness, faithfulness, gentleness and self-control" (Galatians 5:22).
The Holy Spirit in Christian Theology
A formal doctrine of the Holy Spirit did not begin to be developed until the early third century. Tertullian (c.160-c.225) and the Montanist heresy showed the need to distinguish between true and false activities of the Holy Spirit. Origen of Alexandria (c.185-c.254) taught that the Spirit worked primarily within the Church, whereas the Word (Christ) worked within the whole of creation.
In the 4th century, a heretical group known as the Pneumatomachi or Macedonians accepted the divinity of Christ (against Arianism) but denied the full divinity of the Holy Spirit. This belief was refuted by St. Basil the Great in his De Spiritu Sancto ("On the Holy Spirit") and the Pneumatomachi were condemned by Pope Damasus in 374 and by the Council of Constantinople (canon 1) in 381. It was also at the Council of Constantinople that the divinity of the Holy Spirit was formalized. The doctrine of the Spirit was further elaborated by St. Augustine in his important work De Trinitate ("On the Trinity"), in which the Holy Spirit is seen as the bond of union and love between the Father and the Son.
The Filioque Controversy
The controversy over the Latin word filioque is regarded by scholars as one of the chief factors contributing to the split of the western and eastern churches, which was formalized in 1054 AD. It continues to be the source of bad feeling towards Catholicism in Eastern Orthodoxy today. Although the controversy centers around just one word and a rather abstract issue regarding the Holy Spirit, it causes some theological difficulty for Eastern Christians, but perhaps more importantly, they resent the West's tampering with the ecumenical creeds, which are of great importance in Orthodoxy.
The filioque controversy centers around the relationship between the Spirit and the other two Persons in the Trinity, the Father and the Son. In Christian theology and creeds, the Son is "eternally begotten" of the Father. This means that the Son is somehow caused or generated by the Father but not created or begotten in a chronological sense, since the two are both eternal. But how to understand the relationship of the Holy Spirit to the Father and the Son? In the Eastern Church, the Spirit is described as proceeding from the Father. Like "begotten," this term both recognizes the Father as the source and indicate an eternal, ongoing relationship. This was the phrase used in the original Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed (381).
In the Western Church (Catholicism and Protestantism), however, the Spirit is described as proceeding from the Father and the Son. This last phrase, "and the Son," is the English equivalent of the Latin word filioque. The idea that the Spirit proceeds from the Son, which is also known as "Double Procession" is based on the following New Testament passages:
•John 16:13-15 - Jesus says the Spirit will take what is Jesus' and show it to the disciples
•Gal. 4:6 - Holy Spirit as "the Spirit of the Son"
•Rom. 8:9 - Holy Spirit as "the Spirit of Christ"
•Phil. 1:19 - Holy Spirit as "the Spirit of Jesus Christ"
•John 14:16, 15:26, 16:7 - Jesus sends the Holy Spirit
•John 20:22 - Jesus breathes on the disciples and says, "Receive the Holy Spirit"
Western theologians also find support for the filioque doctrine in the writings of St. Cyril of Alexandria, St. Jerome, St. Ambrose, and especially St. Augustine. The filoque phrase is first recorded as being added to the creed at the Third Council of Toledo (589), and by the 9th century the phrase was routinely used in the Western Church. The attractiveness of this view for Western thinkers is that it emphasizes the relational bond between the three Persons of the Trinity. They sought to preserve the Persons' distinction from one another, but also emphasizing their unity and close relationship.
However, most of the early Greek church fathers were adamant that the Spirit proceeds only from the Father, and, as seen above, the original 381 Creed reflects this belief. Eastern theologians stress that there must be only one Fount of Divinity within the Godhead, which is the Father. Thus the Son is begotten (gemnesis) of the Father and the Spirit proceeds (ekporeusis) from the Father. For Eastern Christians, the filioque amounts to believing that there are two sources of divinity within the Godhead, which causes all kinds of internal contradictions and tensions, weakens the distinction between Son and Spirit, and depersonalizes the Spirit. They point to the Western term "Spirit of Christ" as a classic example of the way the filioque doctrine blurs the line between the Second and Third Persons of the Trinity.
However, despite the considerable tension between Greek and Latin thinkers on this issue, some have sought to reconcile the two approaches. St. Augustine, while affirming the filioque, affirmed that the Holy Spirit "principally proceeds" from the Father. Other Latin writers have likewise sought to clarify that they were not teaching two sources of divinity within the Godhead, and the Council of Lyons (1274) stated that "the Holy Spirit proceeds from the Father and the Son, yet not as from two origins but as one origin." Nevertheless, the same Council of Lyons also condemned those who deny the filioque clause and the doctrine remains a significant point of contention between Eastern and Western Churches today. The most recent development is a statement issued by the North American Orthodox-Catholic Consultation on October 28, 2003, which concluded a four-year study on the issue and suggested steps towards unity.
Protestants generally follow the Catholic doctrine of the filioque. Anglicans, who among Protestants are most closely identified with Catholicism, have generally accepted Double Procession since the 39 Articles, but modern Anglican theologians participating in ecumenical discussions on the subject are often disposed to dropping the filioque from the Creed.
Gifts of the Spirit
In addition to his role as comforter, the Holy Spirit is also believed to give gifts (i.e. abilities) to Christians. These include the charismatic gifts such as prophecy, tongues, healing, and knowledge, which some Christians ("cessationists"), believe were given only in New Testament times. Almost all Christians agree, however, that most other "spiritual gifts" are still in effect today, including the gifts of ministry, teaching, giving, leadership, and mercy (see, e.g., Romans 12:6-8).
After his resurrection, Christ also told his disciples that they would be "baptized with the Holy Ghost," and would receive power from this event (Acts 1:4-8), which Christians believe was fulfilled in the events of the second chapter of Acts. According to this account, on the first Pentecost (the Jewish festival of Shavuot) after the resurrection, Jesus' disciples were gathered in Jerusalem when a mighty wind was heard and tongues of fire appeared over their heads. A multilingual crowd heard the disciples speaking, and each of them heard them speaking in his or her native language. These events were also referred to a prophecy of the prophet Joel, who foretold that God would "pour out his spirit upon all flesh."
The Pentecostal movement places special emphasis on the work of the Holy Spirit, and especially on the gifts mentioned above, believing that they are still given today. Many Pentecostals believe in a "Baptism of the Holy Spirit," in which the Spirit's power is received by the Christian in a new way. Some Pentecostal sects hold that the baptism of the Holy Spirit is the one sure sign of Christianity in a person, or conversely, that until a person has experienced this baptism of the Holy Spirit (evidenced by speaking in tongues or other spiritual manifestation), they cannot be certain of their salvation.
Iconography of the Holy Spirit
The Holy Spirit is often depicted as a dove, based on the story of the Holy Spirit descending on Jesus in the form of a dove when he was baptized in the Jordan. The book of Acts describes the Holy Spirit descending on the apostles at Pentecost in the form of a wind and tongues of fire resting over the apostles' heads. Based on the imagery in that account, the Holy Spirit is sometimes symbolized by a flame.
The "Age of the Spirit"
According to dispensationalism, we are now living in the Age of the Spirit. The Old Testament period, under this view, may be called the Age of the Father; the period covered by the Gospels, the Age of the Son; from Pentecost until the second advent of Christ.
The Holy Spirit in Non-Mainstream Christianity
In Unitarian churches, Jehovah's Witnesses and some other churches that do not accept the doctrine of the Trinity, the holy spirit is God's spirit or God's active force, and not a separate person. In the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints the Holy Spirit is considered a third and individual member of the Godhead, distinct from the Father and the Son, having a body of spirit (whereas the Father and the Son are believed to be resurrected individuals having immortalized bodies of flesh and bone).
The Holy Spirit is sometimes referred to as the Holy Ghost, particularly by conservative Pentecostal groups and the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. This name was used in the King James Bible (1611) and was the common term until the 20th century.
The branch of Christian theology concerned with the Holy Spirit is called Pneumatology. The following article explores Christian beliefs about the Holy Spirit as expressed in the Bible and Christian doctrines.
The Holy Spirit in the Old Testament
In the Old Testament, the Spirit (ruach) is an instrument of divine action in nature and in the human heart. Before the creation of the world, the Spirit was brooding over the waters (Gen. 1:2). The Spirit inspired the artistic skill of Bezaleel (Exod. 36:1), the triumphs of Joshua (Deut. 34:9), and the strength of Samson (Judges 14:6).
The Spirit enabled the prophets (Is 61:1) to enable them to communicate divine truth and empowered human moral purity and holiness (Ps. 51:11). In the Apocrypha, the Sprit became especially associated with wisdom and understanding (Ecclus. 39:6; Wisd. 7:7,9:17).
Of particular significance for Christians are the predictions that the Spirit would be the possession of the coming Davidic King (Is. 11:2) and of the Servant of the Lord (Is. 42:1), and that in the future there would be a dramatic extension of the Spirit's activities and power (Ezek. 36:26; Joel 2:28-32).
The Holy Spirit in the New Testament
In the Gospel of John, the emphasis is placed not upon what the Holy Spirit did for Jesus, but upon Jesus giving the spirit to his disciples. This "Higher" Christology, which was the most influential in the later development of Trinity doctrine, sees Jesus as a sacrificial lamb, and as coming among men in order to grant the Spirit of God to humanity.
Christians believe that it was the Holy Spirit whom Jesus mentioned as the promised "comforter" in John 14:26, and that it is the Holy Spirit who leads people to faith in Jesus and the one who gives them the ability to lead a Christian life. The Spirit dwells inside every true Christian. He is depicted as a 'counsellor' or 'helper' (paraclete in Greek), guiding them in the way of the truth. The 'Fruit of the Spirit' (i.e. the results of his work) should be "love, joy, peace, patience, kindness, goodness, faithfulness, gentleness and self-control" (Galatians 5:22).
The Holy Spirit in Christian Theology
A formal doctrine of the Holy Spirit did not begin to be developed until the early third century. Tertullian (c.160-c.225) and the Montanist heresy showed the need to distinguish between true and false activities of the Holy Spirit. Origen of Alexandria (c.185-c.254) taught that the Spirit worked primarily within the Church, whereas the Word (Christ) worked within the whole of creation.
In the 4th century, a heretical group known as the Pneumatomachi or Macedonians accepted the divinity of Christ (against Arianism) but denied the full divinity of the Holy Spirit. This belief was refuted by St. Basil the Great in his De Spiritu Sancto ("On the Holy Spirit") and the Pneumatomachi were condemned by Pope Damasus in 374 and by the Council of Constantinople (canon 1) in 381. It was also at the Council of Constantinople that the divinity of the Holy Spirit was formalized. The doctrine of the Spirit was further elaborated by St. Augustine in his important work De Trinitate ("On the Trinity"), in which the Holy Spirit is seen as the bond of union and love between the Father and the Son.
The Filioque Controversy
The controversy over the Latin word filioque is regarded by scholars as one of the chief factors contributing to the split of the western and eastern churches, which was formalized in 1054 AD. It continues to be the source of bad feeling towards Catholicism in Eastern Orthodoxy today. Although the controversy centers around just one word and a rather abstract issue regarding the Holy Spirit, it causes some theological difficulty for Eastern Christians, but perhaps more importantly, they resent the West's tampering with the ecumenical creeds, which are of great importance in Orthodoxy.
The filioque controversy centers around the relationship between the Spirit and the other two Persons in the Trinity, the Father and the Son. In Christian theology and creeds, the Son is "eternally begotten" of the Father. This means that the Son is somehow caused or generated by the Father but not created or begotten in a chronological sense, since the two are both eternal. But how to understand the relationship of the Holy Spirit to the Father and the Son? In the Eastern Church, the Spirit is described as proceeding from the Father. Like "begotten," this term both recognizes the Father as the source and indicate an eternal, ongoing relationship. This was the phrase used in the original Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed (381).
In the Western Church (Catholicism and Protestantism), however, the Spirit is described as proceeding from the Father and the Son. This last phrase, "and the Son," is the English equivalent of the Latin word filioque. The idea that the Spirit proceeds from the Son, which is also known as "Double Procession" is based on the following New Testament passages:
•John 16:13-15 - Jesus says the Spirit will take what is Jesus' and show it to the disciples
•Gal. 4:6 - Holy Spirit as "the Spirit of the Son"
•Rom. 8:9 - Holy Spirit as "the Spirit of Christ"
•Phil. 1:19 - Holy Spirit as "the Spirit of Jesus Christ"
•John 14:16, 15:26, 16:7 - Jesus sends the Holy Spirit
•John 20:22 - Jesus breathes on the disciples and says, "Receive the Holy Spirit"
Western theologians also find support for the filioque doctrine in the writings of St. Cyril of Alexandria, St. Jerome, St. Ambrose, and especially St. Augustine. The filoque phrase is first recorded as being added to the creed at the Third Council of Toledo (589), and by the 9th century the phrase was routinely used in the Western Church. The attractiveness of this view for Western thinkers is that it emphasizes the relational bond between the three Persons of the Trinity. They sought to preserve the Persons' distinction from one another, but also emphasizing their unity and close relationship.
However, most of the early Greek church fathers were adamant that the Spirit proceeds only from the Father, and, as seen above, the original 381 Creed reflects this belief. Eastern theologians stress that there must be only one Fount of Divinity within the Godhead, which is the Father. Thus the Son is begotten (gemnesis) of the Father and the Spirit proceeds (ekporeusis) from the Father. For Eastern Christians, the filioque amounts to believing that there are two sources of divinity within the Godhead, which causes all kinds of internal contradictions and tensions, weakens the distinction between Son and Spirit, and depersonalizes the Spirit. They point to the Western term "Spirit of Christ" as a classic example of the way the filioque doctrine blurs the line between the Second and Third Persons of the Trinity.
However, despite the considerable tension between Greek and Latin thinkers on this issue, some have sought to reconcile the two approaches. St. Augustine, while affirming the filioque, affirmed that the Holy Spirit "principally proceeds" from the Father. Other Latin writers have likewise sought to clarify that they were not teaching two sources of divinity within the Godhead, and the Council of Lyons (1274) stated that "the Holy Spirit proceeds from the Father and the Son, yet not as from two origins but as one origin." Nevertheless, the same Council of Lyons also condemned those who deny the filioque clause and the doctrine remains a significant point of contention between Eastern and Western Churches today. The most recent development is a statement issued by the North American Orthodox-Catholic Consultation on October 28, 2003, which concluded a four-year study on the issue and suggested steps towards unity.
Protestants generally follow the Catholic doctrine of the filioque. Anglicans, who among Protestants are most closely identified with Catholicism, have generally accepted Double Procession since the 39 Articles, but modern Anglican theologians participating in ecumenical discussions on the subject are often disposed to dropping the filioque from the Creed.
Gifts of the Spirit
In addition to his role as comforter, the Holy Spirit is also believed to give gifts (i.e. abilities) to Christians. These include the charismatic gifts such as prophecy, tongues, healing, and knowledge, which some Christians ("cessationists"), believe were given only in New Testament times. Almost all Christians agree, however, that most other "spiritual gifts" are still in effect today, including the gifts of ministry, teaching, giving, leadership, and mercy (see, e.g., Romans 12:6-8).
After his resurrection, Christ also told his disciples that they would be "baptized with the Holy Ghost," and would receive power from this event (Acts 1:4-8), which Christians believe was fulfilled in the events of the second chapter of Acts. According to this account, on the first Pentecost (the Jewish festival of Shavuot) after the resurrection, Jesus' disciples were gathered in Jerusalem when a mighty wind was heard and tongues of fire appeared over their heads. A multilingual crowd heard the disciples speaking, and each of them heard them speaking in his or her native language. These events were also referred to a prophecy of the prophet Joel, who foretold that God would "pour out his spirit upon all flesh."
The Pentecostal movement places special emphasis on the work of the Holy Spirit, and especially on the gifts mentioned above, believing that they are still given today. Many Pentecostals believe in a "Baptism of the Holy Spirit," in which the Spirit's power is received by the Christian in a new way. Some Pentecostal sects hold that the baptism of the Holy Spirit is the one sure sign of Christianity in a person, or conversely, that until a person has experienced this baptism of the Holy Spirit (evidenced by speaking in tongues or other spiritual manifestation), they cannot be certain of their salvation.
Iconography of the Holy Spirit
The Holy Spirit is often depicted as a dove, based on the story of the Holy Spirit descending on Jesus in the form of a dove when he was baptized in the Jordan. The book of Acts describes the Holy Spirit descending on the apostles at Pentecost in the form of a wind and tongues of fire resting over the apostles' heads. Based on the imagery in that account, the Holy Spirit is sometimes symbolized by a flame.
The "Age of the Spirit"
According to dispensationalism, we are now living in the Age of the Spirit. The Old Testament period, under this view, may be called the Age of the Father; the period covered by the Gospels, the Age of the Son; from Pentecost until the second advent of Christ.
The Holy Spirit in Non-Mainstream Christianity
In Unitarian churches, Jehovah's Witnesses and some other churches that do not accept the doctrine of the Trinity, the holy spirit is God's spirit or God's active force, and not a separate person. In the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints the Holy Spirit is considered a third and individual member of the Godhead, distinct from the Father and the Son, having a body of spirit (whereas the Father and the Son are believed to be resurrected individuals having immortalized bodies of flesh and bone).
Christology: Beliefs about the Nature of Christ
Jesus Christ is one the most fascinating and enigmatic figures in history. Despite his humble origins (a son of a carpenter from the Judean countryside), short life (about 33 years), and very short public career (between one and three years), Jesus is the central focus of the world's largest religion and has meant many things to many people since his death almost 2,000 years ago. Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of World Religions calls Jesus "arguably the most important figure in the history of western civilization."
In recent years, both scholarly and popular attention has been focused on the "quest for the historical Jesus," an attempt to distinguish the human Jesus who lived and taught in Galilee from the "Christ of faith" developed by the early Christians. This subject will be discussed in a separate article (currently under development).
This article focuses on the "Christ of faith" - that is, the Christian doctrine about who Jesus was. This topic is known to Christian theologians as "Christology," a field that seeks to answer the question, "Who is Jesus Christ?" from a theological perspective. The article that follows will focus on five major answers that Christians have traditionally given to this question: he was a real human being, the Messiah, the Son of Man, the Son of God, and God.
Christ as a Historical Human Being
First, Christians believe Jesus to have been a historical human being who was born in Bethlehem between 7 and 4 BC. {1} The humanity of Jesus is now one of the least controversial areas of Christology, but this was not always so.
In the early years after Christ, some taught that Jesus' body, suffering, and death were merely appearances. Scholars call this view "docetism," from the Greek word meaning "to seem." Docetism arose from the Gnostic view that all matter is evil, and concluded that God could not have been actually associated with it.
Christ as the Messiah
Christians believe Jesus is the Messiah, the "anointed one" predicted in the Jewish Scriptures. The word "Christ" comes from the Greek for "Messiah," (it is actually a title, not a surname). According to the Hebrew prophets, the Messiah is a king-like figure from the line of David who would, among other things, rescue Israel from her oppressors, return Jerusalem to the Jewish people, and usher in an age of peace. {2} There is evidence that Jewish messianic expectation was high at the time of Jesus, associated with hope of liberation from Roman occupation.
Jews and Christians disagree, of course, as to whether Jesus was the Messiah. The arguments given for both sides and the history of this disagreement is worthy of fuller treatment, and will be the subject of a future feature article. In the meantime, an overview of Jewish beliefs about the Messiah can be found in the article on Jewish Beliefs.
In the New Testament, affirmations of Jesus as the Messiah are found almost exclusively in the four Gospel narratives and the Acts of the Apostles. The Pauline and other epistles, many of which predate the Gospels, do not attempt to show that Jesus is Messiah, yet they refer to him almost exclusively as "Christ." In the Gospels, various people identify Jesus as the Messiah, and Jesus himself reinforces this perception:
•After meeting Jesus, Andrew runs to tell Peter that he has found the Messiah (Jn 1:41)
•In a conversation with Jesus, a Samaritan woman says she knows the Messiah is coming. Jesus replies, "I who speak to you am he." (Jn 4:25-26)
•When Jesus asks his disciples who they think he is, Peter answers, "You are the Christ." (Mt 16:16; Mk 8:29; Lk 9:20)
•During the Triumphal Entry, the crowds shout, "Hosanna to the Son of David!" and the Gospel author explains that this fulfilled the prophecy of Zechariah 9:9. (Mt 21:4-9)
•When Jesus stands trial before the Sanhedrin (the Jewish high court), the high priest asks him if he is " the Christ, the Son of the Blessed One?" and Jesus replies, "I am." (Mk 14:61-62)
In Acts, one of the primary messages of the apostles is that Jesus is the Messiah:
•"Day after day, in the temple courts and from house to house, they [the apostles] never stopped teaching and proclaiming the good news that Jesus is the Christ." (Ac 5:52)
•"As his custom was, Paul went into the synagogue, and one three Sabbath days he reasoned with them from the Scriptures, explaining and proving that the Christ had to suffer and rise from the dead. 'This Jesus I am proclaiming to you is the Christ,' he said." (Ac 17:2-3)
•Before King Herod Agrippa II, Paul insists, "I am saying nothing beyond what the prophets and Moses said would happen - that the Christ would suffer and, as the first to rise from the dead, would proclaim light to his own people and to the Gentiles." (Ac 26:22-23)
It is interesting to note that although Jesus appears to see himself as the Messiah in the Gospels, he does not go out of his way to identify himself as such, and those who do are commanded not to tell anyone about it. {3} This is known as the "messianic secret," and its significance remains somewhat of a mystery to biblical scholars.
Christ as Son of Man
"Son of Man" is one of the more interesting and enigmatic titles of Jesus. It used 81 times in the Gospels, and always by Jesus himself. No other character in the Gospel narratives nor any other New Testament writer uses the term. {4} Various explanations have been offered as to why Jesus employed the term and others did not. It may have been a term Jesus could use early in his ministry without inciting much hostility, because of its various meanings, but that would later encompass his messianic claims. The early Christian writers may have been reluctant to use it because the Greek phrase is somewhat ambiguous (Jesus would have used the simpler Aramaic term). {5}
To determine what Jesus meant by the phrase, Biblical scholars turn to its use in the Old Testament. There the term "Son of Man" is used in three main contexts:
•an address to the prophet Ezekiel (e.g. Ezekiel 2:1);
•to refer to humanity in general, especially its lowliness when compared to God and the angels (Numbers 23:19; Psalm 8:14); and
•to refer to an eschatological figure whose coming signals the end of history (Daniel 7:13-14). {6}
Jesus appears to use the phrase especially in the third sense. He uses the phrase "Son of Man" when speaking of his roles of saving and judging (e.g. Mk 10:45; Mt 25:31) and of the future coming of an exalted, heavenly figure (e.g. Mt 13:41, 24:30; Mk 14:62; Lk 18:8).
Christ as Son of God
Another title used to refer to Jesus in the New Testament is "Son of God." In the Old Testament, this phrase had a general meaning of "belonging to God." It was applied to the people of Israel in general and especially its rulers (see e.g. Ex 4:22; 2 Sa 7:14).
Jesus does not refer to himself as the Son of God in the Gospels, but the term is used in the writings of Paul (e.g. Ro 1:4, 8:31) and in the epistle to the Hebrews (4:14). The Gospel of John refers to Jesus simply as "the Son," which may have a similar meaning. Paul uses the term for both Christ and Christians, but distinguishes between the two. Christians become sons of God by adoption, but Jesus is the rightful Son of God by nature. {7}
Christ as GodFinally, Christians believe that Christ is God. This concept seems to be stated explicitly in the New Testament in at least the following places:
•In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God.... The Word became flesh and made his dwelling among us. (John 1:1,14)
•Thomas said to him [the resurrected Jesus], "My Lord and my God!" (John 20:28)
•But about the Son he [God] says, "Your throne, O God, will last for ever and ever." (Hebrews 1:8)
In addition, some important titles and functions applied to Christ in the New Testament indicate early belief in his divinity. The statement "Jesus Christ is Lord (Greek kyrios, Hebrew adonai)" is found throughout the New Testament and was one of the earliest Christian confessions of faith. Due to the substitution of the word "Lord" in place of YHWH (the holy name of God that may not be pronounced) in Torah readings, "Lord" had come to be almost synonymous with God in Jewish thinking by the time of Jesus. This associated can be seen in the Jews' refusal to address the Roman emperor as "lord," even under penalty of death. {8}
Finally, as noted by Alister McGrath, the New Testament writers apply the following functions to Jesus that are associated only with God:
•Jesus is the savior of humanity (Mt 1:21, Ac 4:12, Lk 2:11)
•It is appropriate to call on the name of Jesus in prayer (1 Co 1:2) and to worship him (Mt 28:9)
•Jesus reveals God directly: "Anyone who has seen me has seen the Father." (Jn 14:9) {9}
In recent years, both scholarly and popular attention has been focused on the "quest for the historical Jesus," an attempt to distinguish the human Jesus who lived and taught in Galilee from the "Christ of faith" developed by the early Christians. This subject will be discussed in a separate article (currently under development).
This article focuses on the "Christ of faith" - that is, the Christian doctrine about who Jesus was. This topic is known to Christian theologians as "Christology," a field that seeks to answer the question, "Who is Jesus Christ?" from a theological perspective. The article that follows will focus on five major answers that Christians have traditionally given to this question: he was a real human being, the Messiah, the Son of Man, the Son of God, and God.
Christ as a Historical Human Being
First, Christians believe Jesus to have been a historical human being who was born in Bethlehem between 7 and 4 BC. {1} The humanity of Jesus is now one of the least controversial areas of Christology, but this was not always so.
In the early years after Christ, some taught that Jesus' body, suffering, and death were merely appearances. Scholars call this view "docetism," from the Greek word meaning "to seem." Docetism arose from the Gnostic view that all matter is evil, and concluded that God could not have been actually associated with it.
Christ as the Messiah
Christians believe Jesus is the Messiah, the "anointed one" predicted in the Jewish Scriptures. The word "Christ" comes from the Greek for "Messiah," (it is actually a title, not a surname). According to the Hebrew prophets, the Messiah is a king-like figure from the line of David who would, among other things, rescue Israel from her oppressors, return Jerusalem to the Jewish people, and usher in an age of peace. {2} There is evidence that Jewish messianic expectation was high at the time of Jesus, associated with hope of liberation from Roman occupation.
Jews and Christians disagree, of course, as to whether Jesus was the Messiah. The arguments given for both sides and the history of this disagreement is worthy of fuller treatment, and will be the subject of a future feature article. In the meantime, an overview of Jewish beliefs about the Messiah can be found in the article on Jewish Beliefs.
In the New Testament, affirmations of Jesus as the Messiah are found almost exclusively in the four Gospel narratives and the Acts of the Apostles. The Pauline and other epistles, many of which predate the Gospels, do not attempt to show that Jesus is Messiah, yet they refer to him almost exclusively as "Christ." In the Gospels, various people identify Jesus as the Messiah, and Jesus himself reinforces this perception:
•After meeting Jesus, Andrew runs to tell Peter that he has found the Messiah (Jn 1:41)
•In a conversation with Jesus, a Samaritan woman says she knows the Messiah is coming. Jesus replies, "I who speak to you am he." (Jn 4:25-26)
•When Jesus asks his disciples who they think he is, Peter answers, "You are the Christ." (Mt 16:16; Mk 8:29; Lk 9:20)
•During the Triumphal Entry, the crowds shout, "Hosanna to the Son of David!" and the Gospel author explains that this fulfilled the prophecy of Zechariah 9:9. (Mt 21:4-9)
•When Jesus stands trial before the Sanhedrin (the Jewish high court), the high priest asks him if he is " the Christ, the Son of the Blessed One?" and Jesus replies, "I am." (Mk 14:61-62)
In Acts, one of the primary messages of the apostles is that Jesus is the Messiah:
•"Day after day, in the temple courts and from house to house, they [the apostles] never stopped teaching and proclaiming the good news that Jesus is the Christ." (Ac 5:52)
•"As his custom was, Paul went into the synagogue, and one three Sabbath days he reasoned with them from the Scriptures, explaining and proving that the Christ had to suffer and rise from the dead. 'This Jesus I am proclaiming to you is the Christ,' he said." (Ac 17:2-3)
•Before King Herod Agrippa II, Paul insists, "I am saying nothing beyond what the prophets and Moses said would happen - that the Christ would suffer and, as the first to rise from the dead, would proclaim light to his own people and to the Gentiles." (Ac 26:22-23)
It is interesting to note that although Jesus appears to see himself as the Messiah in the Gospels, he does not go out of his way to identify himself as such, and those who do are commanded not to tell anyone about it. {3} This is known as the "messianic secret," and its significance remains somewhat of a mystery to biblical scholars.
Christ as Son of Man
"Son of Man" is one of the more interesting and enigmatic titles of Jesus. It used 81 times in the Gospels, and always by Jesus himself. No other character in the Gospel narratives nor any other New Testament writer uses the term. {4} Various explanations have been offered as to why Jesus employed the term and others did not. It may have been a term Jesus could use early in his ministry without inciting much hostility, because of its various meanings, but that would later encompass his messianic claims. The early Christian writers may have been reluctant to use it because the Greek phrase is somewhat ambiguous (Jesus would have used the simpler Aramaic term). {5}
To determine what Jesus meant by the phrase, Biblical scholars turn to its use in the Old Testament. There the term "Son of Man" is used in three main contexts:
•an address to the prophet Ezekiel (e.g. Ezekiel 2:1);
•to refer to humanity in general, especially its lowliness when compared to God and the angels (Numbers 23:19; Psalm 8:14); and
•to refer to an eschatological figure whose coming signals the end of history (Daniel 7:13-14). {6}
Jesus appears to use the phrase especially in the third sense. He uses the phrase "Son of Man" when speaking of his roles of saving and judging (e.g. Mk 10:45; Mt 25:31) and of the future coming of an exalted, heavenly figure (e.g. Mt 13:41, 24:30; Mk 14:62; Lk 18:8).
Christ as Son of God
Another title used to refer to Jesus in the New Testament is "Son of God." In the Old Testament, this phrase had a general meaning of "belonging to God." It was applied to the people of Israel in general and especially its rulers (see e.g. Ex 4:22; 2 Sa 7:14).
Jesus does not refer to himself as the Son of God in the Gospels, but the term is used in the writings of Paul (e.g. Ro 1:4, 8:31) and in the epistle to the Hebrews (4:14). The Gospel of John refers to Jesus simply as "the Son," which may have a similar meaning. Paul uses the term for both Christ and Christians, but distinguishes between the two. Christians become sons of God by adoption, but Jesus is the rightful Son of God by nature. {7}
Christ as GodFinally, Christians believe that Christ is God. This concept seems to be stated explicitly in the New Testament in at least the following places:
•In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God.... The Word became flesh and made his dwelling among us. (John 1:1,14)
•Thomas said to him [the resurrected Jesus], "My Lord and my God!" (John 20:28)
•But about the Son he [God] says, "Your throne, O God, will last for ever and ever." (Hebrews 1:8)
In addition, some important titles and functions applied to Christ in the New Testament indicate early belief in his divinity. The statement "Jesus Christ is Lord (Greek kyrios, Hebrew adonai)" is found throughout the New Testament and was one of the earliest Christian confessions of faith. Due to the substitution of the word "Lord" in place of YHWH (the holy name of God that may not be pronounced) in Torah readings, "Lord" had come to be almost synonymous with God in Jewish thinking by the time of Jesus. This associated can be seen in the Jews' refusal to address the Roman emperor as "lord," even under penalty of death. {8}
Finally, as noted by Alister McGrath, the New Testament writers apply the following functions to Jesus that are associated only with God:
•Jesus is the savior of humanity (Mt 1:21, Ac 4:12, Lk 2:11)
•It is appropriate to call on the name of Jesus in prayer (1 Co 1:2) and to worship him (Mt 28:9)
•Jesus reveals God directly: "Anyone who has seen me has seen the Father." (Jn 14:9) {9}
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