History of Seventh-day Adventism
William Miller (1782-1849)
Ellen White and her husband James White.
A Seventh-day Adventist Church in Lompoc, California. Photo: Kent Kanouse.
Seventh-day Adventist church in Grahamstown, South Africa. Photo: Gregor Rohrig.
Seventh-day Adventist church in Peru.
Photo: Doug Downen. The Adventist movement has its roots in the 19th-century "Millerite movement," which centered on the belief that Jesus would return on October 22, 1844. William Miller (1782-1849) was a farmer who settled in upstate New York after the war of 1812. He was originally a Deist, but after much private Bible study, Miller converted to Christianity and became a Baptist. He was convinced that the Bible contained coded information about the end of the world and the Second Coming of Jesus. In 1836, he published the book Evidences from Scripture and History of the Second Coming of Christ about the Year 1843.
The prediction of the year 1843 was based in large part on Daniel 8:14: "And he said onto me, unto 2,300 days, then shall the sanctuary be cleansed." Miller believed the "2,300 days" referred to 2,300 years and that the countdown began in 457 BC. He concluded that the "cleansing of the sanctuary" (interpreted as the Second Coming) would occur sometime between March 21, 1843 and March 21, 1844.
When these dates passed, Samuel Snow, a follower of Miller, interpreted the "tarrying time" referred to in Habakkuk 2:3 as equal to 7 months and 10 days, thus delaying the end time to October 22, 1844. When this date also passed uneventfully, many followers left the movement in what is now termed "The Great Disappointment." Miller himself gradually withdrew from the leadership of the group and died in 1849.
Miller's followers who remained in the movement called themselves Adventists, and taught that the expectation had been fulfilled in a way that had not previously been understood. Further Bible study led to the belief that Jesus in that year had entered into the Most Holy Place of the heavenly sanctuary, and began an "investigative judgment" of the world: a process through which there is an examination of the heavenly records to "determine who, through repentance of sin and faith in Christ, are entitled to the benefits of His atonement" after which time Jesus will return to earth. According to the church's teaching, the return of Christ may occur very soon, though nobody knows the exact date of that event (Matthew 24:36).
For about 20 years, the Adventist movement was a rather unorganized group of people who held to this message. Among its greatest supporters were James White, Ellen G. White and Joseph Bates. Later, a formally organized church called the General Conference of Seventh-day Adventists was established in Battle Creek, Michigan, on May 21, 1863, with a membership of 3,500.
Primarily through the evangelism and inspiration of Ellen G. White, who was regarded as a prophet, the church quickly grew and established a presence beyond North America during the later part of the 1800s. In 1903, the denominational headquarters were moved from Battle Creek to Washington D.C. and the neighboring community of Takoma Park, Maryland.
In 1929, a new sect was formed by Victor Houteff, whose beliefs differed from mainline Adventist teachings. The sect was called the Davidian Seventh-day Adventists. This group further subdivided into other groups that included the Students of the Seven Seals, popularly known as the Branch Davidians. This off-shoot of the Seventh-day Adventist movement, which became widely known due to David Koresh and 1993 Waco, Texas conflagration, held very little in common with the rest of Adventism.
In 1989, the headquarters of the Seventh-day Adventist Church was moved to Silver Spring, Maryland.
Seventh-day Adventist Beliefs
Seventh-day Adventist doctrine is rooted in the Anabaptist Protestant tradition. Adventist doctrine resembles mainstream orthodox trinitarian Protestant theology, with a few exceptions such as the following.
•Adventism. Belief in an imminent, pre-millennial, universally visible second advent, preceded by a time of trouble when the righteous will be persecuted and a false second coming where Satan impersonates the Messiah.
•Ellen G. White. Teaching that the "Spirit of Prophecy," an identifying mark of the remnant church, was manifested in the ministry of Ellen G. White, whom Adventists recognize as the Lord's messenger. Her "writings are a continuing and authoritative source of truth which provide for the church comfort, guidance, instruction, and correction."(28 Fundamental Beliefs) They also make clear that the Bible is the standard by which all teachings and experience must be tested.
•State of the dead. Seventh-day Adventists believe that death is a sleep during which the "dead know nothing" (Ecclesiastes 9:5). This view maintains that the person has no conscious form of existence until the resurrection, either at the second coming of Jesus (in the case of the righteous) or after the millennium of Revelation 20 (in the case of the wicked). Because of this view, Seventh-day Adventists do not believe hell currently exists and believe further that the wicked will be destroyed at the end of time.
Seventh-day Adventists oppose the formulation of credal statements and prefer to view the fundamental beliefs as descriptors rather than prescriptors. However, divergence from the published position is frowned upon.
Seventh-day Adventist Practices
Seventh-day Adventists observe a 24-hour sunset-to-sunset Sabbath commencing Friday evening. Justification for this belief is garnered from the creation account in Genesis in which God rested on the seventh day, an approach later immortalised in the Ten Commandments. Seventh-day Adventists maintain that there is no biblical mandate for the change from the "true Sabbath" to Sunday observance, which is to say that Sunday-keeping is merely a "tradition of men."
Church services follow an evangelical format, with emphasis placed on the sermon. During the week prayer meetings may be conducted and children often attend Adventist schools.
Seventh-day Adventists practice adult baptism by full immersion in a similar manner to the Baptists. Infants are dedicated rather than baptized, as it is argued that baptism requires consent and moral responsibility.
Seventh-day Adventists practice communion four times a year, reflecting their Methodist roots. The communion is an open service (available to members and non-members) and includes a foot-washing ceremony (commonly referred to as the Ordinance of Humility) and consumption of the Lord's Supper.
Seventh-day Adventists do not eat pork or other unclean meat as identified in the book of Leviticus and many avoid all meat for health reasons (see next section).
Missionary outreach of the Seventh-day Adventist Church is aimed at both unbelievers and other Christian churches.
Seventh-day Adventist Health Code and Dietary Restrictions
Seventh-day Adventists present a health message that recommends vegetarianism and condones abstinence from pork, shellfish, and other foods proscribed as "unclean" in Leviticus. Alcohol and tobacco are also prohibited.
Dr. John Kellogg, founder of the Kellogg's company and a major supplier of breakfast cereals, was a member of the Seventh-day Adventist Church. The Sanitarium Health Food Company, owned by the Seventh-day Adventist Church, is one of Australia's leading manufacturers of health and vegetarian-related products.
Seventh-day Adventists run a large number of hospitals. Their predominant school of medicine in North America is located in Loma Linda, California.
Seventh-day Adventist Ethical Views
The official Seventh-day Adventist position on abortion is that it is permissable only in exceptional circumstances that present serious moral or medical dilemmas, such as significant threats to the pregnant woman's life, serious jeopardy to her health, severe congenital defects carefully diagnosed in the fetus, and pregnancy resulting from rape or incest. While the general tone toward abortion is negative, the individual Adventist may take any position on the political spectrum. Abortions are performed in Adventist hospitals.
Seventh-day Adventists generally condemn homosexuality. The church does not perform gay marriages or holy unions, and gay men cannot be ordained. Homosexuality of a spouse is given as one of the rare acceptable reasons for divorce. The official statement on sexuality states that sexual acts outside of heterosexual marriage are forbidden. However, individual Adventists may take a much more liberal position.
Seventh-day Adventist Organization and Structure
Seventh-day Adventists have three levels of ordination: deacons, elders, and pastors. In some Adventist churches only men are eligible for ordination but there are many examples of deaconesses and female elders and pastors. Male pastors are allowed to marry and have families.
Organization beyond the local church is as follows:
•The global church is called the General Conference.
•The General Conference is made up of divisions.
•Divisions are comprised of union conferences.
•Union conferences consist of local conferences.
•Local conferences include local church districts. These are generally ministered to by one pastor each.
•Local districts can contain one to many local churches (congregations). In the United States, these numbers tend to be smaller (2-4 churches per district, perhaps), while in most of the worldwide church, the numbers tend to be larger (5+ per district and per pastor, sometimes as many as 15 or more).
Adventist Church governance, is a mixture of episcopal and presbyterian elements. Each of these local churches has its own elected governing body and office. Almost everything is decided by either elected committees, through vote of members, or representatives from the local churches. Each organization holds a general session at certain intervals. This is usually when general decisions get voted on. The president of the General Conference, for instance, is elected at the General Conference Session every five years. The current head of the Seventh-day Adventist Church is General Conference President Jan Paulsen from Norway.
Churches are governed by a church board formed by members of that church, with the pastor of that congregation. Church property is owned by the conference corporation though, and so this differs from congregational polity. Ministers are ordained by ministers as are lay elders and lay deacons (which is presbyterian rather than congregational or episcopal).
Seventh-day Adventist Education and Institutions
Seventh-day Adventists have had a long interest in education. The Adventist church runs one of the largest education systems in the world. They operate some 5,700 pre-schools, primary and secondary schools, as well as colleges, universities, seminaries and medical schools in about 145 countries worldwide. This education system involves some 66,000 teachers and 1,257,000 students. The Adventist educational program is comprehensive encompassing "mental, physical, social, and spiritual health" with "intellectual growth and service to humanity" its goal.
The Youth Department of the Seventh-day Adventist church runs an organisation for 10-16 year old boys and girls called Pathfinders. For younger children, Adventurer, Eager Beaver, and Little Lambs clubs are available that feed into the Pathfinder program. Pathfinders is similar to the Boy Scouts of America (BSA), except that membership is open to both boys and girls.
Seventh-day Adventists have founded a number of universities (listed here) and hospitals (listed here) throughout the world.
The Seventh-day Adventist Church has been active for over 100 years advocating for freedom of religion. In 1893 its leaders founded the International Religious Liberty Association (IRLA). They also have been formally active in humanitarian aid for over 50 years (ADRA).
Gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgendered individuals who are, or had been, practicing Seventh-day Adventists have formed a social network called SDA Kinship international. SDA Kinship was the subject of a lawsuit by the Seventh-day Adventist Church in an attempt to protect the term "SDA" from use by SDA Kinship. The outcome of the ruling allowed the continued use of the term "SDA Kinship".
fredag 11 februari 2011
Roman Catholicism
Catholicism as a Denomination
For the first thousand years of Christianity there was no "Roman Catholicism" as we know it today, simply because there was no Eastern Orthodoxy or Protestantism to distinguish it. There was only the "one, holy, catholic church" affirmed by the early creeds, which was the body of Christian believers all over the world, united by common traditions, beliefs, church structure and worship (catholic simply means "universal"). Thus, throughout the Middle Ages, if you were a Christian, you belonged to the Catholic Church. Any Christianity other than the Catholic Church was a heresy, not a denomination.
Today, however, Roman Catholicism is not the only accepted Christian church. Thus to be a Roman Catholic means to be a certain kind of Christian: one with unique beliefs, practices and traditions that are distinct from those of other Christians. Nevertheless, the Catholic Church continues to maintain that it alone has carried on the true tradition of the apostolic church and has traditionally regarded dissenting groups as heresies, not alternatives (Martin Luther was swiftly excommunicated). However, the recent Second Vatican Council declared all baptized Christians to be "in a certain, although imperfect, communion with the Catholic Church." {1}
Although it did not begin at a specific point in history like the Protestant denominations, in its long history Roman Catholicism has evolved into a distinctive branch of Christianity with beliefs, practices and organization that differ from both Protestantism and Orthodoxy.
Roman Catholicism is by far the largest Christian group. With more than one billion adherents, Catholics constitute about half of the world's Christians. {2} Catholicism is the majority religion of Italy, Spain, and nearly all Latin American countries. In 2001, about 24 percent of Americans identified themselves as Catholic, making Catholicism the largest Christian denomination in America (if the Protestant denominations are counted individually). The next largest denomination, Baptist, was claimed by 16 percent of Americans. {3} Yet if Protestants are considered as one group, Catholics remain a minority among America's Christians.
History of Catholicism Roman Catholicism traces its history to the apostles, especially the Apostle Peter. St. Peter is considered the first pope, and every pope since him is regarded as his spiritual successor. This gives the leader of the church spiritual authority and provides a means for resolving disputes that could divide the church. Through trials like persecution, heresy, and the Reformation, the notion that the church leadership represents the continuation of an unbroken line from the apostles and their teachings ("apostolic succession") has contributed to the survival of Christianity.
However, the idea of the "pope" did not exist from the beginning of the church. It was not until several centuries after Christ that the church began to develop into the "Roman Catholic Church" as we think of it today, with its particular doctrines, practices, and hierarchical system of authority. Thus Catholics and non-Catholics alike are able to claim they are most faithful to the message of the apostles and the early church. From the Catholic perspective, the early church is faithfully continued in the developments of later centuries, while non-Catholics tend to regard the church as having corrupted the original message of Christianity.
In the years of persecution prior to the Emperor's conversion, the church was focused primarily on survival. There were prominent church leaders whose authority was recognized - primarily those who had known the apostles - but no central authority.
But with the conversion of Emperor Constantine in 318 AD, the church began to adopt a governmental structure mirroring that of the Empire, in which geographical provinces were ruled by bishops based in the major city of the area. Soon, the bishops of major cities in the empire emerged as preeminent, including the bishops of Jerusalem, Alexandria, Antioch, Rome, and Constantinople. It was natural that Rome would eventually become the most important of these. It was not only the capital of the empire, but the city in which the apostles Peter and Paul were believed to have been martyred.
The Roman bishop Leo I (440-461) is considered the first pope by historians, as he was the first to claim ultimate authority over all of Christendom. In his writings one can find all the traditional arguments for papal authority, most notably that which asserts Christ had designated Peter and his successors the "rock" on which the church would be built.
Leo's claims were strengthened greatly by his own impressive career as Bishop of Rome. In 445 he earned the express support of Emperor Valentian, who said the Bishop of Rome was the law for all. In 451, he called the important Council of Chalcedon, which put to rest Christological issues that had been plaguing the church. In 452, he impressively saved Rome from Attila the Hun. It is said that the Pope met the warrior at the gates and somehow persuaded him to spare the city. Legend has it that Attila saw Peter and Paul marching along with Leo to defend their city. In 455 he was not as successful with Vandal invaders, but led negotiations with them and succeeded in preventing the burning of Rome (it was, however, plundered).
Catholic BeliefsRoman Catholic beliefs do not differ drastically from those of the other major branches of Christianity - Greek Orthodoxy and Protestantism. All three main branches hold to the doctrine of the Trinity, the divinity of Christ, the inspiration of the Bible, and so on. But on more minor doctrinal points, there are clear Catholic distinctives in belief.
Distinctive Roman Catholic beliefs include the special authority of the pope, the ability of saints to intercede on behalf of believers, the concept of Purgatory as a place of afterlife purification before entering Heaven, and the doctrine of transubstantiation - that is, that the bread used in the Eucharist becomes the true body of Christ when blessed by a priest.
Distinctive Catholic PracticesWith the possible exception of some Anglican churches, the Catholic liturgy tends to be more formal and ritualized than its Protestant counterparts. Services follow a prescribed liturgy and priests wear more elaborate vestments than most Protestant ministers. Catholics usually celebrate the Eucharist more often than do Protestants, usually weekly. In Catholicism, the Eucharist is called the Mass.
Catholics observe seven sacraments, which are religious rituals believed to be commanded by God and effective in conferring grace on the believer.
There are several Catholic monastic orders, the most well known being the Jesuits, Dominicans, Fransciscans, and Augustinians. Catholic monks and nuns take vows of poverty, chastity and obedience and devote themselves to a simple life focused on worshipping God.
Unlike their counterparts in both Protestant and Orthodox churches, Catholic priests take vows of celibacy. This practice is rooted in the papacy's early connections with monasticism, but has become controversial in recent years in part as a result of child abuse scandals.
Other distinctive Catholic practices include veneration of saints, use of the crucifix, and the use of rosary beads in prayer.
For the first thousand years of Christianity there was no "Roman Catholicism" as we know it today, simply because there was no Eastern Orthodoxy or Protestantism to distinguish it. There was only the "one, holy, catholic church" affirmed by the early creeds, which was the body of Christian believers all over the world, united by common traditions, beliefs, church structure and worship (catholic simply means "universal"). Thus, throughout the Middle Ages, if you were a Christian, you belonged to the Catholic Church. Any Christianity other than the Catholic Church was a heresy, not a denomination.
Today, however, Roman Catholicism is not the only accepted Christian church. Thus to be a Roman Catholic means to be a certain kind of Christian: one with unique beliefs, practices and traditions that are distinct from those of other Christians. Nevertheless, the Catholic Church continues to maintain that it alone has carried on the true tradition of the apostolic church and has traditionally regarded dissenting groups as heresies, not alternatives (Martin Luther was swiftly excommunicated). However, the recent Second Vatican Council declared all baptized Christians to be "in a certain, although imperfect, communion with the Catholic Church." {1}
Although it did not begin at a specific point in history like the Protestant denominations, in its long history Roman Catholicism has evolved into a distinctive branch of Christianity with beliefs, practices and organization that differ from both Protestantism and Orthodoxy.
Roman Catholicism is by far the largest Christian group. With more than one billion adherents, Catholics constitute about half of the world's Christians. {2} Catholicism is the majority religion of Italy, Spain, and nearly all Latin American countries. In 2001, about 24 percent of Americans identified themselves as Catholic, making Catholicism the largest Christian denomination in America (if the Protestant denominations are counted individually). The next largest denomination, Baptist, was claimed by 16 percent of Americans. {3} Yet if Protestants are considered as one group, Catholics remain a minority among America's Christians.
History of Catholicism Roman Catholicism traces its history to the apostles, especially the Apostle Peter. St. Peter is considered the first pope, and every pope since him is regarded as his spiritual successor. This gives the leader of the church spiritual authority and provides a means for resolving disputes that could divide the church. Through trials like persecution, heresy, and the Reformation, the notion that the church leadership represents the continuation of an unbroken line from the apostles and their teachings ("apostolic succession") has contributed to the survival of Christianity.
However, the idea of the "pope" did not exist from the beginning of the church. It was not until several centuries after Christ that the church began to develop into the "Roman Catholic Church" as we think of it today, with its particular doctrines, practices, and hierarchical system of authority. Thus Catholics and non-Catholics alike are able to claim they are most faithful to the message of the apostles and the early church. From the Catholic perspective, the early church is faithfully continued in the developments of later centuries, while non-Catholics tend to regard the church as having corrupted the original message of Christianity.
In the years of persecution prior to the Emperor's conversion, the church was focused primarily on survival. There were prominent church leaders whose authority was recognized - primarily those who had known the apostles - but no central authority.
But with the conversion of Emperor Constantine in 318 AD, the church began to adopt a governmental structure mirroring that of the Empire, in which geographical provinces were ruled by bishops based in the major city of the area. Soon, the bishops of major cities in the empire emerged as preeminent, including the bishops of Jerusalem, Alexandria, Antioch, Rome, and Constantinople. It was natural that Rome would eventually become the most important of these. It was not only the capital of the empire, but the city in which the apostles Peter and Paul were believed to have been martyred.
The Roman bishop Leo I (440-461) is considered the first pope by historians, as he was the first to claim ultimate authority over all of Christendom. In his writings one can find all the traditional arguments for papal authority, most notably that which asserts Christ had designated Peter and his successors the "rock" on which the church would be built.
Leo's claims were strengthened greatly by his own impressive career as Bishop of Rome. In 445 he earned the express support of Emperor Valentian, who said the Bishop of Rome was the law for all. In 451, he called the important Council of Chalcedon, which put to rest Christological issues that had been plaguing the church. In 452, he impressively saved Rome from Attila the Hun. It is said that the Pope met the warrior at the gates and somehow persuaded him to spare the city. Legend has it that Attila saw Peter and Paul marching along with Leo to defend their city. In 455 he was not as successful with Vandal invaders, but led negotiations with them and succeeded in preventing the burning of Rome (it was, however, plundered).
Catholic BeliefsRoman Catholic beliefs do not differ drastically from those of the other major branches of Christianity - Greek Orthodoxy and Protestantism. All three main branches hold to the doctrine of the Trinity, the divinity of Christ, the inspiration of the Bible, and so on. But on more minor doctrinal points, there are clear Catholic distinctives in belief.
Distinctive Roman Catholic beliefs include the special authority of the pope, the ability of saints to intercede on behalf of believers, the concept of Purgatory as a place of afterlife purification before entering Heaven, and the doctrine of transubstantiation - that is, that the bread used in the Eucharist becomes the true body of Christ when blessed by a priest.
Distinctive Catholic PracticesWith the possible exception of some Anglican churches, the Catholic liturgy tends to be more formal and ritualized than its Protestant counterparts. Services follow a prescribed liturgy and priests wear more elaborate vestments than most Protestant ministers. Catholics usually celebrate the Eucharist more often than do Protestants, usually weekly. In Catholicism, the Eucharist is called the Mass.
Catholics observe seven sacraments, which are religious rituals believed to be commanded by God and effective in conferring grace on the believer.
There are several Catholic monastic orders, the most well known being the Jesuits, Dominicans, Fransciscans, and Augustinians. Catholic monks and nuns take vows of poverty, chastity and obedience and devote themselves to a simple life focused on worshipping God.
Unlike their counterparts in both Protestant and Orthodox churches, Catholic priests take vows of celibacy. This practice is rooted in the papacy's early connections with monasticism, but has become controversial in recent years in part as a result of child abuse scandals.
Other distinctive Catholic practices include veneration of saints, use of the crucifix, and the use of rosary beads in prayer.
Quakers
Also known as: "The Religious Society of Friends" or "Friends"
Founded by: George Fox
Adherents worldwide: Approximately 400,000
Adherents in the United States: approximately 100,000
Famous people with Quaker roots: frontiersman Daniel Boone, actor James Dean, former U.S. presidents Herbert Hoover and Richard Nixon, musician Dave Matthews, philanthropist Johns Hopkins, seamstress of the first American flag, Betsy Ross, and American poet, Walt Whitman
The Religious Society of Friends was founded by George Fox in England in the 1640's. Fox was a staunch critic of the Church of England's melding of faith and politics, especially as it related to war. By the 1660's, the Friends movement had organized and held meetings regularly. Their worship was characterized by silently and patiently waiting for the Holy Spirit to move and speak to them.
As to the origin of their names, "Quakers" and "Friends," accounts differ. Some contend that Fox's early followers called themselves "Friends of Truth," which over time was shortened to just "Friends." In regards to "Quaker," one tradition teaches that sometimes adherents would shake as they sat waiting for the Holy Spirit to move and speak, which led others to label them "Quakers." Still another story says that once when Fox was brought before an English judge in 1650, he was mocked for encouraging the judge to "tremble" at the word of God and the group was nicknamed "Quakers" as a result.
As with other Christian denominations, there is diversity within the Society of Friends. The approximately 1,000 Quaker denominations in the United States can subdivided in the following manner:
•Evangelical Friends International - 36,000 members
•Friends General Conference - 32,000 members (liberal leanings)
•Friends United Meeting - 40,000 members (closest to mainline Protestantism)
•Unaffiliated Friends - 6,700
•Conservative Friends - 1,500 members (has commonalities with Old Order Mennonites and Old German Baptists)
Founded by: George Fox
Adherents worldwide: Approximately 400,000
Adherents in the United States: approximately 100,000
Famous people with Quaker roots: frontiersman Daniel Boone, actor James Dean, former U.S. presidents Herbert Hoover and Richard Nixon, musician Dave Matthews, philanthropist Johns Hopkins, seamstress of the first American flag, Betsy Ross, and American poet, Walt Whitman
The Religious Society of Friends was founded by George Fox in England in the 1640's. Fox was a staunch critic of the Church of England's melding of faith and politics, especially as it related to war. By the 1660's, the Friends movement had organized and held meetings regularly. Their worship was characterized by silently and patiently waiting for the Holy Spirit to move and speak to them.
As to the origin of their names, "Quakers" and "Friends," accounts differ. Some contend that Fox's early followers called themselves "Friends of Truth," which over time was shortened to just "Friends." In regards to "Quaker," one tradition teaches that sometimes adherents would shake as they sat waiting for the Holy Spirit to move and speak, which led others to label them "Quakers." Still another story says that once when Fox was brought before an English judge in 1650, he was mocked for encouraging the judge to "tremble" at the word of God and the group was nicknamed "Quakers" as a result.
As with other Christian denominations, there is diversity within the Society of Friends. The approximately 1,000 Quaker denominations in the United States can subdivided in the following manner:
•Evangelical Friends International - 36,000 members
•Friends General Conference - 32,000 members (liberal leanings)
•Friends United Meeting - 40,000 members (closest to mainline Protestantism)
•Unaffiliated Friends - 6,700
•Conservative Friends - 1,500 members (has commonalities with Old Order Mennonites and Old German Baptists)
Protestant Christianity
In a 2002 study conducted by the Pew Research Council, 53 percent of Americans identified themselves as Protestant Christians. There are approximately 500 million Protestants in the world. {1}
"Protestantism" is less a denomination than a general branch of Christianity encompassing numerous denominations and a wide theological spectrum ranging from conservative to liberal.
Protestantism originated in the 16th century Reformation, and most modern Protestant denominations can trace their heritage to one of the major movements that sprung up in the 16th century. Presbyterians are indebted to John Calvin and Reformed theology, as well as to John Knox and the Church of Scotland. Anglicans and Episcopalians trace their heritage to the Church of England that resulted from King Henry VIII's break from the authority of Rome. Evangelicalism (and to a slightly lesser degree, Methodism) is indebted to Pietism, a 17th century Protestant movement emphasizing a holy life, individual study of the scriptures, and better training of ministers.
Protestant denominations differ in the degree to which they reject Catholic belief and practice. Some churches, such as Anglicans and Lutherans, tend to resemble Catholicism in their formal liturgy, while others, like Baptists and Presbyterians, retain very little of the liturgy and tradition associated with the Catholic church.
In common with Catholic and Orthodox Christians, Protestants adhere to the authority of the Bible and the doctrines of he early creeds. Protestants are distinguished by their emphasis on the doctrines of "justification by grace alone through faith, the priesthood of all believers, and the supremacy of Holy Scripture in matters of faith and order." {2} Most Protestant churches recognize only two sacraments directly commanded by the Lord - baptism and communion - as opposed to the seven sacraments accepted by the Catholic Church.
"Protestantism" is less a denomination than a general branch of Christianity encompassing numerous denominations and a wide theological spectrum ranging from conservative to liberal.
Protestantism originated in the 16th century Reformation, and most modern Protestant denominations can trace their heritage to one of the major movements that sprung up in the 16th century. Presbyterians are indebted to John Calvin and Reformed theology, as well as to John Knox and the Church of Scotland. Anglicans and Episcopalians trace their heritage to the Church of England that resulted from King Henry VIII's break from the authority of Rome. Evangelicalism (and to a slightly lesser degree, Methodism) is indebted to Pietism, a 17th century Protestant movement emphasizing a holy life, individual study of the scriptures, and better training of ministers.
Protestant denominations differ in the degree to which they reject Catholic belief and practice. Some churches, such as Anglicans and Lutherans, tend to resemble Catholicism in their formal liturgy, while others, like Baptists and Presbyterians, retain very little of the liturgy and tradition associated with the Catholic church.
In common with Catholic and Orthodox Christians, Protestants adhere to the authority of the Bible and the doctrines of he early creeds. Protestants are distinguished by their emphasis on the doctrines of "justification by grace alone through faith, the priesthood of all believers, and the supremacy of Holy Scripture in matters of faith and order." {2} Most Protestant churches recognize only two sacraments directly commanded by the Lord - baptism and communion - as opposed to the seven sacraments accepted by the Catholic Church.
Presbyterian and Reformed Churches in Europe and Australia
Presbyterian and Reformed Churches in Europe and Australia
The Church of Scotland
•Website
•National church of Scotland
•608,000 members (plus 200,000 more regular worshippers) in December 2000
•Society, Religion and Technology Project seeks to bring a Christian perspective to bioethics
•Church Without Walls (2001 report) sets out a vision for the church's future
•Practices:
◦Women may be ordained
◦Worship is led by the parish minister
◦Lay members including deacons, elders, and readers are also involved
◦Marriage is not regarded as a sacrament; ministers may marry non-members
◦Remarriage permitted in certain circumstances
•Organization:
◦Each congregation is governed by the kirk session
◦Several kirk sessions in a region are governed by a presbytery
◦All presbyteries in Scotland are governed by the General Assembly
◦The chair of the General Assembly is the Moderator
◦The current moderator is the first woman to hold that position, Dr. Alison Elliot.
The Presbyterian Church in Ireland (PCI)
•Website
•Covers both Northern and Southern Ireland
•Headquartered at Church House in Belfast, built in 1905 and modeled on St. Giles Cathedral in Edinburgh
•300,000 people in over 560 congregations
•Beliefs: Presbyterianism is characterized by "strong emphasis on the Sovereignty of God, the Kingship of Christ and the authority of the Bible."
•History:
◦Irish Presbyterianism traces its roots to Scottish migrations in the early 17th century
◦First presbytery was formed in 1642 by chaplains of a Scottish army that had come to Ireland
◦Divisions in 18th century over subscription to Westminster formularies – Scottish Covenanters and Seceders
◦Founding member of the World Alliance of Reformed Churches
◦Reunion in 1845 between the General Synod of Ulster and the Secession Synod (or Seceders) to form the PCI
•Worship: "The preaching of the Word of God is central, in a setting of prayer and praise. There is no fixed liturgy. Prayers and hymns, psalms and paraphrases, Scripture reading and sermon are adapted to the needs of the occasion."
•Infant baptism
•Peace Vocation
•Symbol is burning bush
Reformed Church in Hungary
•Website
The Presbyterian Church of Australia (PCA)
•Website
•Formed by the union of the Presbyterian Churches of New South Wales, Victoria, Queensland, South Australia, Tasmania, and Western Australia.
•Beliefs:
◦Supreme standard is scripture, subordinate standard is Westminster Confession of Faith
◦Openness to salvation of infants and those with no knowledge of Christ
◦Clarification that predestination is not to evil and man still has responsibility
◦Fallen man is capable of virtuous actions, though not faith
•"1991 Min. 84 XIX. Only men shall be eligible for admission to the Ministry of Word and Sacraments in the Presbyterian Church of Australia and all rules and regulations of the Assembly and services of Ordination shall be construed that reference therein to ministers of the Word and Sacraments shall refer only to men."
The Church of Scotland
•Website
•National church of Scotland
•608,000 members (plus 200,000 more regular worshippers) in December 2000
•Society, Religion and Technology Project seeks to bring a Christian perspective to bioethics
•Church Without Walls (2001 report) sets out a vision for the church's future
•Practices:
◦Women may be ordained
◦Worship is led by the parish minister
◦Lay members including deacons, elders, and readers are also involved
◦Marriage is not regarded as a sacrament; ministers may marry non-members
◦Remarriage permitted in certain circumstances
•Organization:
◦Each congregation is governed by the kirk session
◦Several kirk sessions in a region are governed by a presbytery
◦All presbyteries in Scotland are governed by the General Assembly
◦The chair of the General Assembly is the Moderator
◦The current moderator is the first woman to hold that position, Dr. Alison Elliot.
The Presbyterian Church in Ireland (PCI)
•Website
•Covers both Northern and Southern Ireland
•Headquartered at Church House in Belfast, built in 1905 and modeled on St. Giles Cathedral in Edinburgh
•300,000 people in over 560 congregations
•Beliefs: Presbyterianism is characterized by "strong emphasis on the Sovereignty of God, the Kingship of Christ and the authority of the Bible."
•History:
◦Irish Presbyterianism traces its roots to Scottish migrations in the early 17th century
◦First presbytery was formed in 1642 by chaplains of a Scottish army that had come to Ireland
◦Divisions in 18th century over subscription to Westminster formularies – Scottish Covenanters and Seceders
◦Founding member of the World Alliance of Reformed Churches
◦Reunion in 1845 between the General Synod of Ulster and the Secession Synod (or Seceders) to form the PCI
•Worship: "The preaching of the Word of God is central, in a setting of prayer and praise. There is no fixed liturgy. Prayers and hymns, psalms and paraphrases, Scripture reading and sermon are adapted to the needs of the occasion."
•Infant baptism
•Peace Vocation
•Symbol is burning bush
Reformed Church in Hungary
•Website
The Presbyterian Church of Australia (PCA)
•Website
•Formed by the union of the Presbyterian Churches of New South Wales, Victoria, Queensland, South Australia, Tasmania, and Western Australia.
•Beliefs:
◦Supreme standard is scripture, subordinate standard is Westminster Confession of Faith
◦Openness to salvation of infants and those with no knowledge of Christ
◦Clarification that predestination is not to evil and man still has responsibility
◦Fallen man is capable of virtuous actions, though not faith
•"1991 Min. 84 XIX. Only men shall be eligible for admission to the Ministry of Word and Sacraments in the Presbyterian Church of Australia and all rules and regulations of the Assembly and services of Ordination shall be construed that reference therein to ministers of the Word and Sacraments shall refer only to men."
Presbyterian and Reformed Churches in Canada
The Presbyterian Church in Canada (PCC)
•Website
•About Presbyterians in Canada
•Mother church was the Church of Scotland, but Canadian heritage also includes work of French Huguenots
•Became independent in 1875 when several groups of Presbyterians established Presbyterian Church
•About 1000 congregations today
•"There are congregations that worship in English, French, Korean, Chinese, Taiwanese, Hungarian, Spanish and Portuguese."
•Member of World Council of Churches, World Alliance of Reformed Churches, and Canadian Council of Churches
•Women may be elders
•Sessions, presbyteries, synods, and the General Assembly
•General Assembly meets annually in the first week in June
•A Moderator is elected each year to preside over the Assembly
•Historical criticism of Scripture is important
•Most congregations organize worship service into four parts: gathering, listening, thanking, and going
•About half of the congregations allow children to participate in the Lord's Supper
•Website
•About Presbyterians in Canada
•Mother church was the Church of Scotland, but Canadian heritage also includes work of French Huguenots
•Became independent in 1875 when several groups of Presbyterians established Presbyterian Church
•About 1000 congregations today
•"There are congregations that worship in English, French, Korean, Chinese, Taiwanese, Hungarian, Spanish and Portuguese."
•Member of World Council of Churches, World Alliance of Reformed Churches, and Canadian Council of Churches
•Women may be elders
•Sessions, presbyteries, synods, and the General Assembly
•General Assembly meets annually in the first week in June
•A Moderator is elected each year to preside over the Assembly
•Historical criticism of Scripture is important
•Most congregations organize worship service into four parts: gathering, listening, thanking, and going
•About half of the congregations allow children to participate in the Lord's Supper
Presbyterian/Reformed Churches in the USA
Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.) or PC(USA)
•Website - "Who We Are"
•2.5 million members
•National offices in Louisville, Kentucky
•History:
◦Formed in 1983 as a reunion of the northern (UPCUSA) and southern (PCUS) branches of the Presbyterian church that occurred during the Civil War
◦Much of early Presbyterian immigrants came from England, Scotland, and Ireland
◦First General Assembly held in Philadelphia in 1789, convened by Rev. John Witherspoon, who was the only minister to sign the Declaration of Independence
◦Major division within Presbyterianism in 1861 during Civil War
◦Princeton was founded by a Presbyterian, Rev. William Tennent
◦The divided churches reunited in 1983 to form the PC(USA)
•Missions are a central focus: "Witnessing to the good news of Jesus Christ throughout the world, Presbyterians engage in mission activities, seek to alleviate hunger, foster self-development, respond to disasters, support mission works, preach the gospel, heal the sick, and educate new generations for the future. In partnership with more than 150 churches and Christian organizations around the world, the missionary efforts of the Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.) involve approximately 1,000 volunteers and compensated personnel."
•Social issues:
◦Women may be ordained to the ministry.
◦Abortion: 1992 Position Statement: "There are no biblical texts that speak expressly to the topic of abortion, but that taken in their totality the Holy Scriptures are filled with messages that advocate respect for the woman and child before and after birth. Therefore the Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.) encourages an atmosphere of open debate and mutual respect for a variety of opinions concerning the issues related to problem pregnancies and abortion." Areas of substantial agreement:
■"The considered decision of a woman to terminate a pregnancy can be a morally acceptable, though certainly not the only or required, decision. Possible justifying circumstances would include medical indications of severe physical or mental deformity, conception as a result of rape or incest, or conditions under which the physical or mental health of either woman or child would be gravely threatened."
■"We are disturbed by abortions that seem to be elected only as a convenience or ease embarrassment. We affirm that abortion should not be used as a method of birth control."
■"The Christian community must be concerned about and address the circumstances that bring a woman to consider abortion as the best available option."
◦Homosexuality:
■General: "Homosexuality is not God's wish for humanity." Yet the church "should be open to more light on what goes into shaping one's sexual preferences and reexamine its life and teaching in relation to people who are seeking affirmation and needing acceptance and who are apparently not free to change their orientations."
■No same-sex marriage.
■No ordination of homosexuals.
◦Alcohol: Moderation and responsible use.
◦Death Penalty: Opposed.
The United Church of Christ (UCC)
•Website
•Founded in 1957 as the union of several Christian traditions
•Denomination is founded on the ideal that "Christians did not always have to agree to live together in communion. Our motto—"that they may all be one"—is Jesus' prayer for the unity of the church. The UCC is one of the most diverse Christian churches in the United States."
•1.4 million members
•In 1957, UCC resulted from the union of the Evangelical and Reformed Church and the Congregational Christian Churches, each of which was a union of two other churches:
◦Reformed Church in the United States (RCUS) – began as congregations of German settlers in Pennsylvania, then Reformed immigrants from Switzerland, Hungary, and others
◦Evangelical Synod of North America - founded in 1841 as association of German Evangelical pastors; reflects 1817 union of Reformed and Lutheran churches in Germany
◦Congregational Churches – founded in 1648 with the Cambridge Platform, which unified the Pilgrims of Plymouth Plantation (1620) and the Puritans of the Massachusetts Bay Colony (1629)
◦Christian Churches – late 1700s as a reaction to the theological and organizational rigidity of the Methodist, Baptist, and Presbyterian churches
Presbyterian Church in America (PCA)
•Website
•About 312,000 members and 1248 congregations in 2002
•Practices governed by Book of Church Order
•Headquartered in Lawrenceville
•Active in missions
•History:
◦Left the Presbyterian Church in the United States (Southern) "in opposition to the long-developing theological liberalism which denied the deity of Jesus Christ and the inerrancy and authority of Scripture. Additionally, the PCA held to the traditional position on the role of women in church offices."
◦Formed in Birmingham, Alabama in 1973 from 260 congregations
◦In 1982, the Reformed Presbyterian Church, Evangelical Synod joined PCA
•Beliefs:
◦Inerrancy of the Bible
◦Adherence to "TULIP"
•Organization:
◦Organized into sessions, presbyteries, and a general assembly
◦Distinction between two classes of elders: teaching and ruling
◦Democratic emphasis on rule from the grassroots up, not top down
Reformed Church in the United States (RCUS)
•Website
•History:
◦RCUS was one of the largest denominations before 1930s and 1940s, now one of the smallest
◦In 1930s and 1940s, most RCUS congregations merged with the Evangelical Synod of North America. Some refused to do so, and believed that the merging congregations "compromised our Reformed heritage" and "do not honor God and his Word."
◦Those who did not merge, mostly in Dakotas, constitute today's RCUS
◦RCUS began as a German immigrant denomination founded by Rev. John Philip Boehm in 1725
◦In 1933-34, most RCUS congregations merged with the Evangelical Synod of North America to form the Evangelical and Reformed Church. This new church merged with the Congregational Christian Churches in 1957 to form the United Church of Christ.
•Beliefs:
◦RCUS opposed liberal, humanistic tendencies in the church and ecumenism that compromises true doctrine.
◦Doctrine based on Bible alone, and confessional standards are The Heidelberg Catechism, The Belgic Confession of Faith, and the Canons of Dort (accepted because they accurately summarize the Bible)
◦Strict predestination
◦Presbyterianism is the form of church government instituted by the Lord
•"The RCUS is not the only Reformed or Biblical church, nor are Reformed believers the only Christians. Christ warns us against such arrogance in Matthew 24:23, 24. Nevertheless, we are convinced that the teaching summarized in the Reformed creeds is the most faithful expression of Biblical teaching known to man."
Evangelical Presbyterian Church (EPC)
•Website
•70,000 active members in 190 congregations
•Strong missionary emphasis
•Founded in 1981 in St. Louis, MO by pastors from UPCUSA and PCUS. "They wanted to form a church that took seriously the words of Scripture, the theology of the historic confessions of the faith, and the evangelical fervor of Presbyterian founders. They envisioned a denomination that was truly evangelical and truly Presbyterian; hence the name."
•Individual EPC believers and churches are free to decide on "nonessentials" such as worship styles, spiritual gifts and ordination of women.
•Position Papers:
◦Homosexuality is a sin
◦Opposed to practice and legalization of abortion
◦Divorce (and remarriage) only allowed in cases of adultery or desertion.
◦Opposed to euthanasia on grounds of Sixth Commandment; withdrawal of life support accepted.
◦War and violence wrong except when to protect from self or others from harm
•Website - "Who We Are"
•2.5 million members
•National offices in Louisville, Kentucky
•History:
◦Formed in 1983 as a reunion of the northern (UPCUSA) and southern (PCUS) branches of the Presbyterian church that occurred during the Civil War
◦Much of early Presbyterian immigrants came from England, Scotland, and Ireland
◦First General Assembly held in Philadelphia in 1789, convened by Rev. John Witherspoon, who was the only minister to sign the Declaration of Independence
◦Major division within Presbyterianism in 1861 during Civil War
◦Princeton was founded by a Presbyterian, Rev. William Tennent
◦The divided churches reunited in 1983 to form the PC(USA)
•Missions are a central focus: "Witnessing to the good news of Jesus Christ throughout the world, Presbyterians engage in mission activities, seek to alleviate hunger, foster self-development, respond to disasters, support mission works, preach the gospel, heal the sick, and educate new generations for the future. In partnership with more than 150 churches and Christian organizations around the world, the missionary efforts of the Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.) involve approximately 1,000 volunteers and compensated personnel."
•Social issues:
◦Women may be ordained to the ministry.
◦Abortion: 1992 Position Statement: "There are no biblical texts that speak expressly to the topic of abortion, but that taken in their totality the Holy Scriptures are filled with messages that advocate respect for the woman and child before and after birth. Therefore the Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.) encourages an atmosphere of open debate and mutual respect for a variety of opinions concerning the issues related to problem pregnancies and abortion." Areas of substantial agreement:
■"The considered decision of a woman to terminate a pregnancy can be a morally acceptable, though certainly not the only or required, decision. Possible justifying circumstances would include medical indications of severe physical or mental deformity, conception as a result of rape or incest, or conditions under which the physical or mental health of either woman or child would be gravely threatened."
■"We are disturbed by abortions that seem to be elected only as a convenience or ease embarrassment. We affirm that abortion should not be used as a method of birth control."
■"The Christian community must be concerned about and address the circumstances that bring a woman to consider abortion as the best available option."
◦Homosexuality:
■General: "Homosexuality is not God's wish for humanity." Yet the church "should be open to more light on what goes into shaping one's sexual preferences and reexamine its life and teaching in relation to people who are seeking affirmation and needing acceptance and who are apparently not free to change their orientations."
■No same-sex marriage.
■No ordination of homosexuals.
◦Alcohol: Moderation and responsible use.
◦Death Penalty: Opposed.
The United Church of Christ (UCC)
•Website
•Founded in 1957 as the union of several Christian traditions
•Denomination is founded on the ideal that "Christians did not always have to agree to live together in communion. Our motto—"that they may all be one"—is Jesus' prayer for the unity of the church. The UCC is one of the most diverse Christian churches in the United States."
•1.4 million members
•In 1957, UCC resulted from the union of the Evangelical and Reformed Church and the Congregational Christian Churches, each of which was a union of two other churches:
◦Reformed Church in the United States (RCUS) – began as congregations of German settlers in Pennsylvania, then Reformed immigrants from Switzerland, Hungary, and others
◦Evangelical Synod of North America - founded in 1841 as association of German Evangelical pastors; reflects 1817 union of Reformed and Lutheran churches in Germany
◦Congregational Churches – founded in 1648 with the Cambridge Platform, which unified the Pilgrims of Plymouth Plantation (1620) and the Puritans of the Massachusetts Bay Colony (1629)
◦Christian Churches – late 1700s as a reaction to the theological and organizational rigidity of the Methodist, Baptist, and Presbyterian churches
Presbyterian Church in America (PCA)
•Website
•About 312,000 members and 1248 congregations in 2002
•Practices governed by Book of Church Order
•Headquartered in Lawrenceville
•Active in missions
•History:
◦Left the Presbyterian Church in the United States (Southern) "in opposition to the long-developing theological liberalism which denied the deity of Jesus Christ and the inerrancy and authority of Scripture. Additionally, the PCA held to the traditional position on the role of women in church offices."
◦Formed in Birmingham, Alabama in 1973 from 260 congregations
◦In 1982, the Reformed Presbyterian Church, Evangelical Synod joined PCA
•Beliefs:
◦Inerrancy of the Bible
◦Adherence to "TULIP"
•Organization:
◦Organized into sessions, presbyteries, and a general assembly
◦Distinction between two classes of elders: teaching and ruling
◦Democratic emphasis on rule from the grassroots up, not top down
Reformed Church in the United States (RCUS)
•Website
•History:
◦RCUS was one of the largest denominations before 1930s and 1940s, now one of the smallest
◦In 1930s and 1940s, most RCUS congregations merged with the Evangelical Synod of North America. Some refused to do so, and believed that the merging congregations "compromised our Reformed heritage" and "do not honor God and his Word."
◦Those who did not merge, mostly in Dakotas, constitute today's RCUS
◦RCUS began as a German immigrant denomination founded by Rev. John Philip Boehm in 1725
◦In 1933-34, most RCUS congregations merged with the Evangelical Synod of North America to form the Evangelical and Reformed Church. This new church merged with the Congregational Christian Churches in 1957 to form the United Church of Christ.
•Beliefs:
◦RCUS opposed liberal, humanistic tendencies in the church and ecumenism that compromises true doctrine.
◦Doctrine based on Bible alone, and confessional standards are The Heidelberg Catechism, The Belgic Confession of Faith, and the Canons of Dort (accepted because they accurately summarize the Bible)
◦Strict predestination
◦Presbyterianism is the form of church government instituted by the Lord
•"The RCUS is not the only Reformed or Biblical church, nor are Reformed believers the only Christians. Christ warns us against such arrogance in Matthew 24:23, 24. Nevertheless, we are convinced that the teaching summarized in the Reformed creeds is the most faithful expression of Biblical teaching known to man."
Evangelical Presbyterian Church (EPC)
•Website
•70,000 active members in 190 congregations
•Strong missionary emphasis
•Founded in 1981 in St. Louis, MO by pastors from UPCUSA and PCUS. "They wanted to form a church that took seriously the words of Scripture, the theology of the historic confessions of the faith, and the evangelical fervor of Presbyterian founders. They envisioned a denomination that was truly evangelical and truly Presbyterian; hence the name."
•Individual EPC believers and churches are free to decide on "nonessentials" such as worship styles, spiritual gifts and ordination of women.
•Position Papers:
◦Homosexuality is a sin
◦Opposed to practice and legalization of abortion
◦Divorce (and remarriage) only allowed in cases of adultery or desertion.
◦Opposed to euthanasia on grounds of Sixth Commandment; withdrawal of life support accepted.
◦War and violence wrong except when to protect from self or others from harm
Presbyterian Organization and Leadership
Presbyterian churches are characterized by a representational form of church government, in which authority is given to elected laypersons known as elders. The word presbyterian comes from the Greek word for "elder."
Elders are both elected and ordained (set apart for ministry). An elder remains ordained after his or her term is complete. The Book of Order describes the job of an elder this way:
Together with ministers of the Word and Sacrament, they exercise leadership, government, and discipline and have responsibilities for the life of a particular church as well as the church at large, including ecumenical relationships.
The governing body of a single Presbyterian congregation, which includes a group of elders and the congregation's minister, is called a session. Sessions are charged with representing the members of the congregation as well as "discovering and representing the will of Christ as they govern."
Beyond the local congregation, several sessions constitute a presbytery, several presbyteries form a synod, and the General Assembly encompasses the entire denomination.
Elders are both elected and ordained (set apart for ministry). An elder remains ordained after his or her term is complete. The Book of Order describes the job of an elder this way:
Together with ministers of the Word and Sacrament, they exercise leadership, government, and discipline and have responsibilities for the life of a particular church as well as the church at large, including ecumenical relationships.
The governing body of a single Presbyterian congregation, which includes a group of elders and the congregation's minister, is called a session. Sessions are charged with representing the members of the congregation as well as "discovering and representing the will of Christ as they govern."
Beyond the local congregation, several sessions constitute a presbytery, several presbyteries form a synod, and the General Assembly encompasses the entire denomination.
History of Presbyterianism
History of Presbyterianism
John Calvin (1509-1564)
Presbyterian and Reformed churches have their historical roots in the thought of John Calvin, a 16th-century French reformer. Calvin trained for the Catholic priesthood at the University of Paris and later as a lawyer, but he eventually converted to the Reformation movement and became a theologian and minister. He wrote a great deal during his career, including lengthy Bible commentaries and the Institutes of the Christian Religion, a work of systematic theology.
Calvin also gave a great deal of thought to practical matters such as the ministry, the church, religious education, and the Christian life. Although he had planned to live the quiet life of a scholar, Calvin was instead coerced into leading the Reformation in Geneva, Switzerland. He worked in Geneva from 1536 to 1538, was driven out of town for a short time, then returned again from 1541 and remained until his death in 1564.
Calvin was an extremely busy man during his time in Geneva, devoting himself to such duties as corresponding with religious and secular Protestant allies throughout Europe, writing commentaries, preaching, performing weddings and funerals, providing pastoral care and advice, and providing religious and classical education to students of the Geneva Academy, which he founded.
In 1541, the town council of Geneva enacted Calvin's Ecclesiastical Ordinances, which set forth regulations on everything from church order and religious education to gambling, dancing, and swearing. Strict disciplinary measures were put in place to deal with transgressors of these ordinances.
Calvin's theology was similar to Martin Luther's in many ways. The Frenchman agreed with the German on the doctrines of original sin, justification by faith alone, the priesthood of all believers, and the sole authority of the scriptures. The theological distinctives of John Calvin lie primarily in degrees of emphasis. For example, both reformers affirmed the sovereignty of God, but Calvin tended to emphasize "God's power and glory, whereas Luther often thought of God as the babe in the manger, among human beings." {1} Although "Calvinist" theology is perhaps most well-known today for its emphasis on predestination, Calvin himself did not emphasize it much more than Luther. He regarded it as a theological mystery, but a comforting doctrine. Some have speculated that Calvin suffered from a great deal of doubt about his own salvation and found reassurance in his faith that the matter was entirely in the hands of a loving and reliable God. {2}
In his ecclesiology (view of the church), Calvin remained closer to Catholicism than Luther did. For instance, Calvin emphasized the institutional church as the true church, the authority of clergy over laity, and the importance of a holy life, whereas Luther saw the body of true believers as the true church, focused on the priesthood of all believers, and continually preached the importance of faith over works. The two reformers also differed in their view of the Eucharist (or Communion): Calvin agreed with Luther on the Real Presence of Christ in the bread and wine, but regarded that presence as purely spiritual.
Reformed Churches in France: The Huguenots
The Huguenots were French Calvinists who endured a great deal of persecution by French Catholic authorities in the 16th and 17th centuries. The origin of the name is not clear, but may have derived from Besançon Hugues, a leader of the Reformation in Geneva (d. 1532). The first French Protestant martyr was burned at the stake in 1523. In 1559, a synod of French Protestant leaders met in Paris. They drew up a confession of faith that reflected Reformed (as opposed to Lutheran) views.
Before long, the Huguenots began to fight back against persecution. In 1560, they plotted to kidnap the boy-king Francis II. In April 1562, leaders signed a declaration stating that they had been forced to take up arms in defense of freedom of conscience. That August, Huguenots were murdered by Catholics in the famous St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre, which set off more violence across France against the Huguenots and fanned the flames of the Wars of Religion.
In 1598, King Henry IV issued the Edict of Nantes, which granted the Huguenots political and religious freedom. However, in 1629, the Peace of Ales ended the Wars of Religion with the Huguenots defeated. They were granted freedom but lost all military advantages, and persecution continued. Finally, in October 1685, King Louis XIV revoked the Edict of Nantes. As a result, most Huguenots emigrated to Prussia, England, the Netherlands, and America, and by 1715 Louis XIV announced that Protestantism had been eradicated in France. However, a Huguenot remnant remained that was determined to revive Protestantism in France. From 1745 to 1754, active persecution of Huguenots resumed.
Finally, in 1789, Emperor Napoleon granted the Huguenots equality under the law and established a state-supported Reformed church. In 1848, a free Reformed church was established apart from state support; the two groups united in 1905 when state support was withdrawn. {3}
John Knox and the Church of Scotland
Second in importance to John Calvin for the history of Presbyterianism is John Knox, a Scotsman who lived from 1514 to 1572. Knox led the Reformation in Scotland in accordance with Calvinistic principles, focusing much of his energy against the Catholic Mary, Queen of Scots, and Catholic practices like the mass. He "set the austere moral tone of the Church of Scotland and shaped the democratic form of government it adopted." {4} The presbyterian form of church government and Reformed theology were formally adopted as the national Church of Scotland in 1690. The Church of Scotland remains Presbyterian today. (See Presbyterian Churches in Europe and the UK for more information.)
Reformed and Presbyterian Churches in the United States
Presbyterianism has had a strong presence in America since the colonial period. Reformed churches were first established in the colonies in the early 1600s and Presbyterians were instrumental in shaping the religious and political life of the fledgling nation. The only Christian minister to sign the Declaration of Independence, Reverend John Witherspoon, was a Presbyterian. The 18th-century "Great Awakening" was led by evangelically-minded Reformed theologians including Jonathan Edwards and George Whitefield.
The United States is in many ways founded on a Calvinist outlook: its focus was on hard work, discipline, the salvation of souls and the building of a better world. Presbyterians were instrumental in the movements for women's rights, abolition of slavery, and temperance. {5}
During the Civil War, American Presbyterians divided into southern and northern branches. These two churches reunited in 1983 to form the Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.), the largest Presbyterian/Reformed denomination in the United States. {6}
Other Presbyterian churches that exist today were also formed in the 20th century as some chose to move in a more liberal direction and others remained conservative. The United Church of Christ (UCC) was formed in 1957 as a unification of several churches of Reformed, Puritan, and Evangelical backgrounds. The UCC stressed unity of Christians who disagree and rejected the perceived theological and organizational rigidity of other mainline Protestant denominations. {7} Today the UCC is the most liberal of American Presbyterian churches.
More conservative is the Presbyterian Church in America (PCA), which left the southern Presbyterian church in 1972 because the latter was perceived as becoming too liberal. The PCA holds to the doctrines of biblical inerrancy and "TULIP," and does not ordain women. {8}
Also at the conservative end of the spectrum is the Reformed Church in the United States (RCUS), a small group located mostly in the Dakotas. In 1933 and 1934, most of the RCUS merged with the Evangelical Synod of North America, which merged with the Congregational Christian Churches in 1957 to form the United Church of Christ. The current RCUS consists of those who rejected this merger, believing that they newly merged churches "compromised our Reformed heritage" and "do not honor God and his Word." {9}
John Calvin (1509-1564)
Presbyterian and Reformed churches have their historical roots in the thought of John Calvin, a 16th-century French reformer. Calvin trained for the Catholic priesthood at the University of Paris and later as a lawyer, but he eventually converted to the Reformation movement and became a theologian and minister. He wrote a great deal during his career, including lengthy Bible commentaries and the Institutes of the Christian Religion, a work of systematic theology.
Calvin also gave a great deal of thought to practical matters such as the ministry, the church, religious education, and the Christian life. Although he had planned to live the quiet life of a scholar, Calvin was instead coerced into leading the Reformation in Geneva, Switzerland. He worked in Geneva from 1536 to 1538, was driven out of town for a short time, then returned again from 1541 and remained until his death in 1564.
Calvin was an extremely busy man during his time in Geneva, devoting himself to such duties as corresponding with religious and secular Protestant allies throughout Europe, writing commentaries, preaching, performing weddings and funerals, providing pastoral care and advice, and providing religious and classical education to students of the Geneva Academy, which he founded.
In 1541, the town council of Geneva enacted Calvin's Ecclesiastical Ordinances, which set forth regulations on everything from church order and religious education to gambling, dancing, and swearing. Strict disciplinary measures were put in place to deal with transgressors of these ordinances.
Calvin's theology was similar to Martin Luther's in many ways. The Frenchman agreed with the German on the doctrines of original sin, justification by faith alone, the priesthood of all believers, and the sole authority of the scriptures. The theological distinctives of John Calvin lie primarily in degrees of emphasis. For example, both reformers affirmed the sovereignty of God, but Calvin tended to emphasize "God's power and glory, whereas Luther often thought of God as the babe in the manger, among human beings." {1} Although "Calvinist" theology is perhaps most well-known today for its emphasis on predestination, Calvin himself did not emphasize it much more than Luther. He regarded it as a theological mystery, but a comforting doctrine. Some have speculated that Calvin suffered from a great deal of doubt about his own salvation and found reassurance in his faith that the matter was entirely in the hands of a loving and reliable God. {2}
In his ecclesiology (view of the church), Calvin remained closer to Catholicism than Luther did. For instance, Calvin emphasized the institutional church as the true church, the authority of clergy over laity, and the importance of a holy life, whereas Luther saw the body of true believers as the true church, focused on the priesthood of all believers, and continually preached the importance of faith over works. The two reformers also differed in their view of the Eucharist (or Communion): Calvin agreed with Luther on the Real Presence of Christ in the bread and wine, but regarded that presence as purely spiritual.
Reformed Churches in France: The Huguenots
The Huguenots were French Calvinists who endured a great deal of persecution by French Catholic authorities in the 16th and 17th centuries. The origin of the name is not clear, but may have derived from Besançon Hugues, a leader of the Reformation in Geneva (d. 1532). The first French Protestant martyr was burned at the stake in 1523. In 1559, a synod of French Protestant leaders met in Paris. They drew up a confession of faith that reflected Reformed (as opposed to Lutheran) views.
Before long, the Huguenots began to fight back against persecution. In 1560, they plotted to kidnap the boy-king Francis II. In April 1562, leaders signed a declaration stating that they had been forced to take up arms in defense of freedom of conscience. That August, Huguenots were murdered by Catholics in the famous St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre, which set off more violence across France against the Huguenots and fanned the flames of the Wars of Religion.
In 1598, King Henry IV issued the Edict of Nantes, which granted the Huguenots political and religious freedom. However, in 1629, the Peace of Ales ended the Wars of Religion with the Huguenots defeated. They were granted freedom but lost all military advantages, and persecution continued. Finally, in October 1685, King Louis XIV revoked the Edict of Nantes. As a result, most Huguenots emigrated to Prussia, England, the Netherlands, and America, and by 1715 Louis XIV announced that Protestantism had been eradicated in France. However, a Huguenot remnant remained that was determined to revive Protestantism in France. From 1745 to 1754, active persecution of Huguenots resumed.
Finally, in 1789, Emperor Napoleon granted the Huguenots equality under the law and established a state-supported Reformed church. In 1848, a free Reformed church was established apart from state support; the two groups united in 1905 when state support was withdrawn. {3}
John Knox and the Church of Scotland
Second in importance to John Calvin for the history of Presbyterianism is John Knox, a Scotsman who lived from 1514 to 1572. Knox led the Reformation in Scotland in accordance with Calvinistic principles, focusing much of his energy against the Catholic Mary, Queen of Scots, and Catholic practices like the mass. He "set the austere moral tone of the Church of Scotland and shaped the democratic form of government it adopted." {4} The presbyterian form of church government and Reformed theology were formally adopted as the national Church of Scotland in 1690. The Church of Scotland remains Presbyterian today. (See Presbyterian Churches in Europe and the UK for more information.)
Reformed and Presbyterian Churches in the United States
Presbyterianism has had a strong presence in America since the colonial period. Reformed churches were first established in the colonies in the early 1600s and Presbyterians were instrumental in shaping the religious and political life of the fledgling nation. The only Christian minister to sign the Declaration of Independence, Reverend John Witherspoon, was a Presbyterian. The 18th-century "Great Awakening" was led by evangelically-minded Reformed theologians including Jonathan Edwards and George Whitefield.
The United States is in many ways founded on a Calvinist outlook: its focus was on hard work, discipline, the salvation of souls and the building of a better world. Presbyterians were instrumental in the movements for women's rights, abolition of slavery, and temperance. {5}
During the Civil War, American Presbyterians divided into southern and northern branches. These two churches reunited in 1983 to form the Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.), the largest Presbyterian/Reformed denomination in the United States. {6}
Other Presbyterian churches that exist today were also formed in the 20th century as some chose to move in a more liberal direction and others remained conservative. The United Church of Christ (UCC) was formed in 1957 as a unification of several churches of Reformed, Puritan, and Evangelical backgrounds. The UCC stressed unity of Christians who disagree and rejected the perceived theological and organizational rigidity of other mainline Protestant denominations. {7} Today the UCC is the most liberal of American Presbyterian churches.
More conservative is the Presbyterian Church in America (PCA), which left the southern Presbyterian church in 1972 because the latter was perceived as becoming too liberal. The PCA holds to the doctrines of biblical inerrancy and "TULIP," and does not ordain women. {8}
Also at the conservative end of the spectrum is the Reformed Church in the United States (RCUS), a small group located mostly in the Dakotas. In 1933 and 1934, most of the RCUS merged with the Evangelical Synod of North America, which merged with the Congregational Christian Churches in 1957 to form the United Church of Christ. The current RCUS consists of those who rejected this merger, believing that they newly merged churches "compromised our Reformed heritage" and "do not honor God and his Word." {9}
Timeline of Presbyterianism
denominations / presbyterianism / timeline
Timeline of Presbyterianism
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1509 Birth of John Calvin
1514 Birth of John Knox
August 1523 Jean Vallière, first French Protestant martyr, is burned at the stake
October 1534 "Affair of the Placards" – anti-Catholic posters appear throughout Paris
1534 John Calvin flees to Basel, Switzerland
1536 John Calvin begins work in Geneva, Switzerland
1546 First Huguenot community is founded at Meaux, France.
March 1546 George Wishart burned at the stake in Scotland by Cardinal David Beaton, archbishop of St. Andrews.
June 1546 Protestants murder Cardinal Beaton and fortify themselves in St. Andrews castle.
June 1547 St. Andrews castle falls to Catholics; John Knox and others are sentenced to slavery in the French galleys.
January 1548 John Knox released from galleys by English intervention. Works as a preacher in England, especially at Berwick-upon-Tweed.
1556-58 John Knox pastors English exiles in Geneva.
1555 Huguenot church in Paris founded
May 1559 Synod of the French Protestant church in Paris chooses Reformed theology over Lutheran and draws up a confession of faith.
March 1560 Conspiracy of Amboise – Huguenots plot to kidnap the boy-king Francis II.
Spring 1560 English troops assist Scottish Reformers in overthrowing the Catholic government. Scots Confession is adopted and papal jurisdiction abolished.
Apr. 12, 1562 Huguenot leaders sign a manifesto that they had been driven to take up arms for liberty of conscience. Wars of Religion begin.
Aug. 24, 1572 St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre. Nearly all Huguenots leaders in Paris are killed. Similar massacres occur throughout France.
1573 Huguenot political party is formed near Nîmes, led by Philippe de Mornay.
1576 Hungarian Reformed Church is formed.
April 1598 King Henry IV's Edict of Nantes grants Huguenots religious and political freedom.
1606 Prince of Transylvania secured rights of Hungarian Reformed churches in territories under Habsburg and Turkish rule. (The Transylvanian town of Debrecen became known as "Calvinist Rome.")
1609 The Hohenzollern elector of Brandenburg converts to Calvinism. Hohenzollern rulers permit the establishment of Reformed churches in Prussia.
1620s More civil wars between Catholics and Protestants in France.
1629 Peace of Ales ends civil war in France, which the Huguenots lost. Huguenots are granted freedom of conscience but lose military advantages.
1642 First presbytery formed in Ireland by a Scottish army chaplain.
1648 Peace of Westphalia ends the Thirty Years' War in Germany.
Oct. 18, 1685 King Louis XIV revokes the Edict of Nantes. Many French Protestants emigrate to England, Prussia, the Netherlands and America.
1688-89 "Glorious Revolution" deposes Catholic King James II of England. English Presbyterians are given limited toleration outside the (Anglican) state church.
1715 Louis XIV announces that the Protestant religion has been eliminated in France.
1715 Protestant leaders meet at Nîmes to discuss how to revive Protestantism in France.
1745-54 Persecution of Huguenots resumes.
1781 Limited toleration of Protestants granted in Eastern Europe.
1789 After the French Revolution, Napoleon grants equality under the law to Protestants. Reformed congregations are placed under state control.
1789 First General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church in the U.S. held in Philadelphia. It is convened by Rev. John Witherspoon, one of the signers of the Declaration of Independence.
1817 Frederick William III of Prussia proposes a union of Reformed and Lutheran churches.
1843 Free Church of Scotland formed under Thomas Chalmers.
1848 Free Evangelical Synod is established in France apart from the state-supported Reformed church.
1884 Reformed Alliance is organized in Germany to preserve the Reformed heritage.
1900 Free churches in Scotland join to form United Free Church of Scotland.
1905 State support of the French Reformed church is withdrawn, and the two French synods unite.
1929 United Free Church of Scotland reunites with Church of Scotland.
1934 Barmen Synod is held in Germany. Christians of Lutheran, Union, and Reformed background join in the Barmen Confession of Faith in opposition to Hitler and Nazism.
1957 United Church of Christ (UCC) founded
1972 Congregational Union of England and Wales and Presbyterian Church of England combine to form United Reformed Church.
1983 Reunion between the Presbyterian Church in the U.S. (PCUS), the "southern branch," and the United Presbyterian Church in the U.S.A. (UPCUSA), the "northern branch," results in the Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.).
Timeline of Presbyterianism
[an error occurred while processing this directive]
1509 Birth of John Calvin
1514 Birth of John Knox
August 1523 Jean Vallière, first French Protestant martyr, is burned at the stake
October 1534 "Affair of the Placards" – anti-Catholic posters appear throughout Paris
1534 John Calvin flees to Basel, Switzerland
1536 John Calvin begins work in Geneva, Switzerland
1546 First Huguenot community is founded at Meaux, France.
March 1546 George Wishart burned at the stake in Scotland by Cardinal David Beaton, archbishop of St. Andrews.
June 1546 Protestants murder Cardinal Beaton and fortify themselves in St. Andrews castle.
June 1547 St. Andrews castle falls to Catholics; John Knox and others are sentenced to slavery in the French galleys.
January 1548 John Knox released from galleys by English intervention. Works as a preacher in England, especially at Berwick-upon-Tweed.
1556-58 John Knox pastors English exiles in Geneva.
1555 Huguenot church in Paris founded
May 1559 Synod of the French Protestant church in Paris chooses Reformed theology over Lutheran and draws up a confession of faith.
March 1560 Conspiracy of Amboise – Huguenots plot to kidnap the boy-king Francis II.
Spring 1560 English troops assist Scottish Reformers in overthrowing the Catholic government. Scots Confession is adopted and papal jurisdiction abolished.
Apr. 12, 1562 Huguenot leaders sign a manifesto that they had been driven to take up arms for liberty of conscience. Wars of Religion begin.
Aug. 24, 1572 St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre. Nearly all Huguenots leaders in Paris are killed. Similar massacres occur throughout France.
1573 Huguenot political party is formed near Nîmes, led by Philippe de Mornay.
1576 Hungarian Reformed Church is formed.
April 1598 King Henry IV's Edict of Nantes grants Huguenots religious and political freedom.
1606 Prince of Transylvania secured rights of Hungarian Reformed churches in territories under Habsburg and Turkish rule. (The Transylvanian town of Debrecen became known as "Calvinist Rome.")
1609 The Hohenzollern elector of Brandenburg converts to Calvinism. Hohenzollern rulers permit the establishment of Reformed churches in Prussia.
1620s More civil wars between Catholics and Protestants in France.
1629 Peace of Ales ends civil war in France, which the Huguenots lost. Huguenots are granted freedom of conscience but lose military advantages.
1642 First presbytery formed in Ireland by a Scottish army chaplain.
1648 Peace of Westphalia ends the Thirty Years' War in Germany.
Oct. 18, 1685 King Louis XIV revokes the Edict of Nantes. Many French Protestants emigrate to England, Prussia, the Netherlands and America.
1688-89 "Glorious Revolution" deposes Catholic King James II of England. English Presbyterians are given limited toleration outside the (Anglican) state church.
1715 Louis XIV announces that the Protestant religion has been eliminated in France.
1715 Protestant leaders meet at Nîmes to discuss how to revive Protestantism in France.
1745-54 Persecution of Huguenots resumes.
1781 Limited toleration of Protestants granted in Eastern Europe.
1789 After the French Revolution, Napoleon grants equality under the law to Protestants. Reformed congregations are placed under state control.
1789 First General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church in the U.S. held in Philadelphia. It is convened by Rev. John Witherspoon, one of the signers of the Declaration of Independence.
1817 Frederick William III of Prussia proposes a union of Reformed and Lutheran churches.
1843 Free Church of Scotland formed under Thomas Chalmers.
1848 Free Evangelical Synod is established in France apart from the state-supported Reformed church.
1884 Reformed Alliance is organized in Germany to preserve the Reformed heritage.
1900 Free churches in Scotland join to form United Free Church of Scotland.
1905 State support of the French Reformed church is withdrawn, and the two French synods unite.
1929 United Free Church of Scotland reunites with Church of Scotland.
1934 Barmen Synod is held in Germany. Christians of Lutheran, Union, and Reformed background join in the Barmen Confession of Faith in opposition to Hitler and Nazism.
1957 United Church of Christ (UCC) founded
1972 Congregational Union of England and Wales and Presbyterian Church of England combine to form United Reformed Church.
1983 Reunion between the Presbyterian Church in the U.S. (PCUS), the "southern branch," and the United Presbyterian Church in the U.S.A. (UPCUSA), the "northern branch," results in the Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.).
Presbyterianism
Presbyterians are distinctive in two major ways: they adhere to a pattern of religious thought known as Reformed theology and a form of government that stresses the active, representational leadership of both ministers and church members."
-- Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.)
Presbyterian and Reformed churches share a common origin in the 16th-century Swiss Reformation and the teachings of John Calvin, and today make up one of the largest branches of Protestant Christianity. There are about 75 million Reformed/Presbyterian Christians worldwide; about 2.5 million belong to the Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.).
The name "Presbyterian" comes from the representational form of church government called presbyterian. In presbyterian churches, governing authority is given to elected lay leaders known as "elders" (or "presbyters"), who work with the congregation's ordained minister. Presbyterian belief and practice center on the Bible and the sovereignty of God.
-- Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.)
Presbyterian and Reformed churches share a common origin in the 16th-century Swiss Reformation and the teachings of John Calvin, and today make up one of the largest branches of Protestant Christianity. There are about 75 million Reformed/Presbyterian Christians worldwide; about 2.5 million belong to the Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.).
The name "Presbyterian" comes from the representational form of church government called presbyterian. In presbyterian churches, governing authority is given to elected lay leaders known as "elders" (or "presbyters"), who work with the congregation's ordained minister. Presbyterian belief and practice center on the Bible and the sovereignty of God.
måndag 7 februari 2011
Lutheranism
Lutheranism is one of the largest Protestant denominations today. According to the Lutheran World Federation, there are nearly 66 million Lutherans worldwide. Of these, 36 million live in Europe, 13 million in Africa, 8.4 million in North America, 7.3 million in Asia, and 1.1 million in Latin America. 1
Lutheranism was founded by Martin Luther, a German monk and professor who has been called the "Father of the Reformation." In 1517, he famously protested against the Catholic Church's sale of indulgences. In his sermons and writings, Luther stressed the doctrine of justification by faith alone and the authority of scripture alone.
Lutheranism quickly spread throughout Germany and Scandanavia, and the Protestant movement in various forms could soon be found throughout Europe.
History of Lutheranism
The Lutheran denomination is the oldest Protestant denomination. It was founded (not deliberately at first) by Martin Luther, the German monk and professor who famously posted 95 Theses against the practice of indulgences in 1517. Luther saw contradictions between the Bible and current church practice as well as corruption and abuses within the (Catholic) church, and initially hoped for reform, not schism. When that proved impossible, he continued to spread his teachings despite excommunication and threats to his life.
Martin Luther taught that salvation comes by the grace of God and faith in Christ alone, and the many rituals and works prescribed by the church were not only unnecessary, but a stumbling block to salvation. He rejected such traditions as the intermediary role of priests, priestly celibacy, the Latin Bible and liturgy, purgatory, and transubstantiation, and advocated for the scriptures to be available to the laity in their own language.
Despite his rejection of many aspects of medieval Catholicism, Luther did accept any aspects of church practice that did not contradict the scriptures. Some other Protestant groups, by contrast, rejected any Catholic tradition not explicitly commanded in the Bible. For this reason, Lutheran churches tend to have more of a Catholic "look and feel" than their more austere Presbyterian counterparts.
Those who followed Luther's teachings were called "Lutherans" by their opponents, and they accepted the name for themselves. Lutheranism spread throughout Germany and into Scandanavia (Norway, Sweden, Finland, Iceland, and Denmark). Today, Germany remains predominantly Lutheran, and Lutheranism is the official state church of Norway, Sweden, Denmark, and Iceland. Eighty-one percent of Finland's citizens are members of the Evangelical Lutheran Church of Finland.
In the 17th century, Lutherans from these countries began to migrate to the United States, bringing their language, culture, and Lutheran faith with them. As the number of Lutheran congregations grew, some began to join together to form "synods," or church bodies.
On January 1, 1988, three American synods, the American Lutheran Church, the Association of Evangelical Lutheran Churches and the Lutheran Church in America, merged to become the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America (ELCA).
In August 1997, the ELCA declared full communion with the United Church of Christ, the Reformed Church of America, and the Presbyterian Church-USA. 2 The ELCA also decided that the differences between it and the Roman Catholic Church in matters of salvation had essentially been resolved.
Lutheran BeliefsLutheran beliefs are expressed in numerous historical Lutheran confessions, most of which were penned by Luther himself or early Lutheran leaders. These confessions have been collected into the Book of Concord, which is regarded as an authority for doctrine and practice by all Lutherans.
ELCA Lutherans view the Book of Concord as an important expression of the Lutheran faith, but not necessarily binding in its entirety for all modern Lutherans. LCMS Lutherans, on the other hand, "regard their doctrinal content as a true and binding exposition of Holy Scripture and as authoritative for all pastors, congregations and other rostered church workers." 3
The Book of Concord contains the following Lutheran texts:
•The Three Ecumenical Creeds
•The Augsburg Confession
•The Defense of the Augsburg Confession
•The Large Catechism
•The Small Catechism
•The Smalcald Articles
•Treatise on the Power and Primacy of the Pope
•The Epitome of the Formula of Concord
•The Solid Declaration of the Formula of Concord
The official statement of faith of the ELCA is as follows:
1.This church confesses the Triune God, Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. This church confesses Jesus Christ as Lord and Savior and the Gospel as the power of God for the salvation of all who believe
- Jesus Christ is the Word of God incarnate, through whom everything was made and through whose life, death, and resurrection God fashions a new creation.
- The proclamation of God's message to us as both Law and Gospel is the Word of God, revealing judgment and mercy through word and deed, beginning with the Word in creation, continuing in the history of Israel, and centering in all its fullness in the person and work of Jesus Christ.
- The canonical Scriptures of the Old and New Testaments are the written Word of God. Inspired by God's Spirit speaking through their authors, they record and announce God's revelation centering in Jesus Christ. Through them God's Spirit speaks to us to create and sustain Christian faith and fellowship for service in the world.
2.This church accepts the canonical Scriptures of the Old and New Testaments as the inspired Word of God and the authoritative source and norm of its proclamation, faith, and life.
3.This church accepts the Apostles', Nicene, and Athanasian Creeds as true declarations of the faith of this church.
4.This church accepts the Unaltered Augsburg Confession as a true witness to the Gospel, acknowledging as one with it In faith and doctrine all churches that likewise accept the teachings of the Unaltered Augsburg Confession.
5.This church accepts the other confessional writings in the Book of Concord, namely, the Apology of the Augsburg Confession, the Smalcald Articles and the Treatise, the Small Catechism, the Large Catechism, and the Formula of Concord, as further valid interpretations of the faith of the Church.
6.This church confesses the Gospel, recorded in the Holy Scriptures and confessed in the ecumenical creeds and Lutheran confessional writings, as the power of God to create and sustain the Church for God's mission in the world.
For more information on ELCA beliefs, see "What do ELCA Lutherans believe?" on the official ELCA website.
For an official statement of LCMS beliefs, see "A Statement of Scriptural and Confessional Principles" (PDF).
Lutheran PracticesLutherans practice infant baptism and the baptism of believing adults. In the Lutheran perspective, baptism is a sacrament that is commanded by God and "cleanses from sin, snatches us from the power of Satan, and gives us everlasting life." 4
Some Lutheran churches ordain women to the ministry, while others do not. The LCMS does not, and offers a full explanation of this decision in its online document "What About the Ordination of Women?"
Social/Ethical Issues
Lutheran churches vary in their perspective on homosexuality and their response to homosexuals in the church. The Lutheran Church - Missouri Synod (LCMS) "believes that the Bible teaches that homosexual behavior is contrary to God's Word and will, and seeks to minister to those who are struggling with homosexual inclinations." 5
The Evangelical Lutheran Church in America (ELCA) has not defined its position officially, but has been conducting a study of the issue in recent years. Its current policy is to welcome homosexual persons to participate fully in its congregations and to encourage open conversations about the issue. The ELCA ordains homosexuals to church positions, with the understanding that they will remain celibate outside of marriage like all ministers.10 The ELCA does not currently bless same-sex marriages.
Differences Between ELCA and LCMS
The two largest Lutheran church bodies in America are the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America (ELCA), with about 5 million members in 2003, and the Lutheran Church - Missouri Synod (LCMS), which had about 2.5 million members in 2003. 6 Other large Lutheran churches include the Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod (WELS) (413,839 members), the Association of Free Lutheran Congregations (36,400), and the Evangelical Lutheran Synod (ELS; 24,000). 7
The ELCA meets in assembly every two years, and elects a bishop to a six-year term. In 2001, the ELCA elected the Rev. Mark S. Hanson, who may be reelected in 2007. "In addition to fulfilling such roles as preacher, teacher and administrator of the sacraments, which traditionally belong to the office of bishop, the presiding bishop of this church serves as president and chief executive officer of the corporation and oversees the staff, budget, and overall administration of the church." 8
The Lutheran Church - Missouri Synod (LCMS) is more conservative than the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America (ELCA). The ELCA allows for the possibility of errors and cultural limitations in the Bible and interprets it using the methods of historical criticism. The ELCA ordains women and is tends to be open to the acceptance of homosexuality and abortion among its members. Similarly, although all Lutherans are guided by the 16th-century Lutheran confessions set out in the Book of Concord, the ELCA does not require its members to accept them in their entirety as normative standards for modern life. LCMS members, on the other hand, "accept without reservation all the confessions of the Evangelical Lutheran Church as a true and unadulterated statement and exposition of the Word of God, normative also for the church today." 9
Another important difference between the LCMS and the ELCA is in the area of ecumenism. The ELCA is a member of the Lutheran World Federation and the World Council of Churches, and has entered into full fellowship with non-Lutheran churches. This means that the ELCA accepts sacraments, such as ordination and communion, performed by churches other than the ELCA as valid. The LCMS, on the other hand, "believes that the Bible requires full agreement in doctrine before it is possible to join in altar and pulpit fellowship with other churches (Rom. 16:17)." The practical difference for a Lutheran churchgoer is that LCMS members and certain other Protestants may take communion in an ELCA congregation, but one must be an LCMS member to take communion in an LCMS congregation
Lutheranism was founded by Martin Luther, a German monk and professor who has been called the "Father of the Reformation." In 1517, he famously protested against the Catholic Church's sale of indulgences. In his sermons and writings, Luther stressed the doctrine of justification by faith alone and the authority of scripture alone.
Lutheranism quickly spread throughout Germany and Scandanavia, and the Protestant movement in various forms could soon be found throughout Europe.
History of Lutheranism
The Lutheran denomination is the oldest Protestant denomination. It was founded (not deliberately at first) by Martin Luther, the German monk and professor who famously posted 95 Theses against the practice of indulgences in 1517. Luther saw contradictions between the Bible and current church practice as well as corruption and abuses within the (Catholic) church, and initially hoped for reform, not schism. When that proved impossible, he continued to spread his teachings despite excommunication and threats to his life.
Martin Luther taught that salvation comes by the grace of God and faith in Christ alone, and the many rituals and works prescribed by the church were not only unnecessary, but a stumbling block to salvation. He rejected such traditions as the intermediary role of priests, priestly celibacy, the Latin Bible and liturgy, purgatory, and transubstantiation, and advocated for the scriptures to be available to the laity in their own language.
Despite his rejection of many aspects of medieval Catholicism, Luther did accept any aspects of church practice that did not contradict the scriptures. Some other Protestant groups, by contrast, rejected any Catholic tradition not explicitly commanded in the Bible. For this reason, Lutheran churches tend to have more of a Catholic "look and feel" than their more austere Presbyterian counterparts.
Those who followed Luther's teachings were called "Lutherans" by their opponents, and they accepted the name for themselves. Lutheranism spread throughout Germany and into Scandanavia (Norway, Sweden, Finland, Iceland, and Denmark). Today, Germany remains predominantly Lutheran, and Lutheranism is the official state church of Norway, Sweden, Denmark, and Iceland. Eighty-one percent of Finland's citizens are members of the Evangelical Lutheran Church of Finland.
In the 17th century, Lutherans from these countries began to migrate to the United States, bringing their language, culture, and Lutheran faith with them. As the number of Lutheran congregations grew, some began to join together to form "synods," or church bodies.
On January 1, 1988, three American synods, the American Lutheran Church, the Association of Evangelical Lutheran Churches and the Lutheran Church in America, merged to become the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America (ELCA).
In August 1997, the ELCA declared full communion with the United Church of Christ, the Reformed Church of America, and the Presbyterian Church-USA. 2 The ELCA also decided that the differences between it and the Roman Catholic Church in matters of salvation had essentially been resolved.
Lutheran BeliefsLutheran beliefs are expressed in numerous historical Lutheran confessions, most of which were penned by Luther himself or early Lutheran leaders. These confessions have been collected into the Book of Concord, which is regarded as an authority for doctrine and practice by all Lutherans.
ELCA Lutherans view the Book of Concord as an important expression of the Lutheran faith, but not necessarily binding in its entirety for all modern Lutherans. LCMS Lutherans, on the other hand, "regard their doctrinal content as a true and binding exposition of Holy Scripture and as authoritative for all pastors, congregations and other rostered church workers." 3
The Book of Concord contains the following Lutheran texts:
•The Three Ecumenical Creeds
•The Augsburg Confession
•The Defense of the Augsburg Confession
•The Large Catechism
•The Small Catechism
•The Smalcald Articles
•Treatise on the Power and Primacy of the Pope
•The Epitome of the Formula of Concord
•The Solid Declaration of the Formula of Concord
The official statement of faith of the ELCA is as follows:
1.This church confesses the Triune God, Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. This church confesses Jesus Christ as Lord and Savior and the Gospel as the power of God for the salvation of all who believe
- Jesus Christ is the Word of God incarnate, through whom everything was made and through whose life, death, and resurrection God fashions a new creation.
- The proclamation of God's message to us as both Law and Gospel is the Word of God, revealing judgment and mercy through word and deed, beginning with the Word in creation, continuing in the history of Israel, and centering in all its fullness in the person and work of Jesus Christ.
- The canonical Scriptures of the Old and New Testaments are the written Word of God. Inspired by God's Spirit speaking through their authors, they record and announce God's revelation centering in Jesus Christ. Through them God's Spirit speaks to us to create and sustain Christian faith and fellowship for service in the world.
2.This church accepts the canonical Scriptures of the Old and New Testaments as the inspired Word of God and the authoritative source and norm of its proclamation, faith, and life.
3.This church accepts the Apostles', Nicene, and Athanasian Creeds as true declarations of the faith of this church.
4.This church accepts the Unaltered Augsburg Confession as a true witness to the Gospel, acknowledging as one with it In faith and doctrine all churches that likewise accept the teachings of the Unaltered Augsburg Confession.
5.This church accepts the other confessional writings in the Book of Concord, namely, the Apology of the Augsburg Confession, the Smalcald Articles and the Treatise, the Small Catechism, the Large Catechism, and the Formula of Concord, as further valid interpretations of the faith of the Church.
6.This church confesses the Gospel, recorded in the Holy Scriptures and confessed in the ecumenical creeds and Lutheran confessional writings, as the power of God to create and sustain the Church for God's mission in the world.
For more information on ELCA beliefs, see "What do ELCA Lutherans believe?" on the official ELCA website.
For an official statement of LCMS beliefs, see "A Statement of Scriptural and Confessional Principles" (PDF).
Lutheran PracticesLutherans practice infant baptism and the baptism of believing adults. In the Lutheran perspective, baptism is a sacrament that is commanded by God and "cleanses from sin, snatches us from the power of Satan, and gives us everlasting life." 4
Some Lutheran churches ordain women to the ministry, while others do not. The LCMS does not, and offers a full explanation of this decision in its online document "What About the Ordination of Women?"
Social/Ethical Issues
Lutheran churches vary in their perspective on homosexuality and their response to homosexuals in the church. The Lutheran Church - Missouri Synod (LCMS) "believes that the Bible teaches that homosexual behavior is contrary to God's Word and will, and seeks to minister to those who are struggling with homosexual inclinations." 5
The Evangelical Lutheran Church in America (ELCA) has not defined its position officially, but has been conducting a study of the issue in recent years. Its current policy is to welcome homosexual persons to participate fully in its congregations and to encourage open conversations about the issue. The ELCA ordains homosexuals to church positions, with the understanding that they will remain celibate outside of marriage like all ministers.10 The ELCA does not currently bless same-sex marriages.
Differences Between ELCA and LCMS
The two largest Lutheran church bodies in America are the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America (ELCA), with about 5 million members in 2003, and the Lutheran Church - Missouri Synod (LCMS), which had about 2.5 million members in 2003. 6 Other large Lutheran churches include the Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod (WELS) (413,839 members), the Association of Free Lutheran Congregations (36,400), and the Evangelical Lutheran Synod (ELS; 24,000). 7
The ELCA meets in assembly every two years, and elects a bishop to a six-year term. In 2001, the ELCA elected the Rev. Mark S. Hanson, who may be reelected in 2007. "In addition to fulfilling such roles as preacher, teacher and administrator of the sacraments, which traditionally belong to the office of bishop, the presiding bishop of this church serves as president and chief executive officer of the corporation and oversees the staff, budget, and overall administration of the church." 8
The Lutheran Church - Missouri Synod (LCMS) is more conservative than the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America (ELCA). The ELCA allows for the possibility of errors and cultural limitations in the Bible and interprets it using the methods of historical criticism. The ELCA ordains women and is tends to be open to the acceptance of homosexuality and abortion among its members. Similarly, although all Lutherans are guided by the 16th-century Lutheran confessions set out in the Book of Concord, the ELCA does not require its members to accept them in their entirety as normative standards for modern life. LCMS members, on the other hand, "accept without reservation all the confessions of the Evangelical Lutheran Church as a true and unadulterated statement and exposition of the Word of God, normative also for the church today." 9
Another important difference between the LCMS and the ELCA is in the area of ecumenism. The ELCA is a member of the Lutheran World Federation and the World Council of Churches, and has entered into full fellowship with non-Lutheran churches. This means that the ELCA accepts sacraments, such as ordination and communion, performed by churches other than the ELCA as valid. The LCMS, on the other hand, "believes that the Bible requires full agreement in doctrine before it is possible to join in altar and pulpit fellowship with other churches (Rom. 16:17)." The practical difference for a Lutheran churchgoer is that LCMS members and certain other Protestants may take communion in an ELCA congregation, but one must be an LCMS member to take communion in an LCMS congregation
Eastern Orthodoxy
The denomination now known as Orthodox Christianity, Eastern Orthodoxy, or the Orthodox Church began as the eastern half of Christendom, the site of the former Byzantine Empire.
Today, the highest concentration of Orthodox Christians remains in the former Byzantine Empire (Greece, Turkey, and nearby countries) and in Russia. But Orthodoxy is found throughout the world, and approximately 225 million people are Orthodox Christians.
Orthodox cathedral in Khabarovsk, Russia. Photo: Boris Bartels.
Greek Orthodox priest and companion in Athens. Photo: Rob Wallace.
Greek Orthdox icon merchant, Zakynthos, Greece. Photo: Rob Wallace.
Orthodox cathedral in Sameba, Georgia.
Photo: Vladimer Shioshvili.History of Orthodoxy Eastern Orthodoxy arose as a distinct branch of Christianity after the 11th-century "Great Schism" between Eastern and Western Christendom. The separation was not sudden. For centuries there had been significant religious, cultural, and political differences between the Eastern and Western churches.
Religiously, they had different views on topics such as the use of images (icons), the nature of the Holy Spirit, and the date on which Easter should be celebrated.
Culturally, the Greek East has always tended to be more philosophical, abstract and mystical in its thinking, whereas the Latin West tends toward a more pragmatic and legal-minded approach. (According to an old saying, "the Greeks built metaphysical systems; the Romans built roads.")
The political aspects of the split date back to the Emperor Constantine, who moved the capital of the Roman Empire from Rome to Constantinople. Upon his death, the empire was divided between his two sons, one of whom ruled the western half of the empire from Rome while the other ruled the eastern region from Constantinople.
These various factors finally came to a head in 1054 AD, when Pope Leo IX excommunicated the patriarch of Constantinople (the leader of the Eastern church). In response, the patriarch anathematized (condemned) the Pope, and the Christian church has been divided into West ("Roman Catholic") and East ("Greek Orthodox") ever since.
A glimmer of hope for reconciliation came at the onset of the Crusades later that century, when the West came to the aid of the East against the Turks. But especially after the Fourth Crusade (1200-1204), in which crusaders sacked and occupied Constantinople, the only result was an increase in hostility between the two churches.
However, attempts at reconciliation have been renewed in recent years. In 1964, the Second Vatican Council issued this statement praising its Eastern counterparts:
The Catholic Church values highly the institutions of the Eastern Churches, their liturgical rites, ecclesiastical traditions, and their ordering of Christian life. For in those churches, which are distinguished by their venerable antiquity, there is clearly evident the tradition which has come from the Apostles through the Fathers and which is part of the divinely revealed, undivided heritage of the Universal Church. {2}
On December 7, 1965, the mutual excommunication of 1054 was officially removed by Pope Paul VI and Patriarch Athenagoras.
Organization and Religious Authority
The Orthodox Church is organized into several regional, autocephalous (governed by their own head bishops) churches. The Patriarch of Constantinople has the honor of primacy, but does not carry the same authority as the Pope does in Catholicism. Major Orthodox churches include the Greek Orthodox Church, the Russian Orthodox Church, the Romanian Orthodox Church, the Bulgarian Orthodox Church, the Church of Alexandria, the Church of Jerusalem, and the Orthodox Church in America.
The religious authority for Orthodox Christianity is not the Pope as in Catholicism, nor the individual Christian with his Bible as in Protestantism, but the scriptures as interpreted by the seven ecumenical councils of the church.
Orthodoxy also relies heavily on the writings of early Greek fathers such as Gregory of Nyssa, John Chrysostom and St. Basil the Great. Although some Orthodox confessions of faith were produced in the 17th century as counterparts to those of the Reformation, these are regarded as having only historical significance.
Distinctive Orthodox Beliefs
As in all of Christianity, doctrine is important in Eastern Orthodoxy. Orthodox Christians attach great importance to the Bible, the conclusions of the Seven Ecumenical Councils, and right ("orthodox") belief. However, the Eastern Churches approach religious truth differently than the Western Churches. For Orthodox Christians, truth must be experienced personally. There is less focus on the exact definition of religious truth and more on the practical and personal experience of truth in the life of the individual and the church. Precise theological definition, when it occurs, is for the purpose of excluding error.
This emphasis on personal experience of truth flows into Orthodox theology, which has a rich heritage. Especially in the first millenium of Christian history, the Eastern Church produced significant theological and philosophical thought.
In the Western churches, both Catholic and Protestant, sin, grace, and salvation are seen primarily in legal terms. God gave humans freedom, they misused it and broke God's commandments, and now deserve punishment. God's grace results in forgiveness of the transgression and freedom from bondage and punishment.
The Eastern churches see the matter in a different way. For Orthodox theologians, humans were created in the image of God and made to participate fully in the divine life. The full communion with God that Adam and Eve enjoyed meant complete freedom and true humanity, for humans are most human when they are completely united with God.
The result of sin, then, was a blurring of the image of God and a barrier between God and man. The situation in which mankind has been ever since is an unnatural, less human state, which ends in the most unnatural aspect: death. Salvation, then, is a process not of justification or legal pardon, but of reestablishing man's communion with God. This process of repairing the unity of human and divine is sometimes called "deification." This term does not mean that humans become gods but that humans join fully with God's divine life.
The Eastern Orthodox view of the Trinity also differs somewhat from that of the Christian West. In its Christology, Orthodoxy tends to emphasize the divine, preexistent nature of Christ, whereas the West focuses more on his human nature. However, both East and West affirm Christ's full humanity and full divinity as defined by the ecumenical councils. In fact, Christ's humanity is also central to the Orthodox faith, in the doctrine that the divine became human so that humanity might be raised up to the divine life.
The process of being reunited to God, made possible by Christ, is accomplished by the Holy Spirit. The Spirit plays a central role in Orthodox worship: the liturgy usually begins with a prayer to the Spirit and invocations made prior to sacraments are addressed to the Spirit.
It is in the view of the Holy Spirit that Orthodox theology differs from Western theology, and although the difference might now seem rather techinical and abstract, it was a major contributor to the parting of East from West in the 11th century. This dispute is known as the Filioque Controversy, as it centers on the Latin word filioque ("and from the Son"), which was added to the Nicene Creed in Spain in the 6th century. The original creed proclaimed only that the Holy Spirit "proceeds from the Father."
The purpose of the addition was to reaffirm the divinity of the Son, but Eastern theologians objected both to the unilateral editing of a creed produced by an ecumenical council and to the edit itself. For Eastern Christians, both the Spirit and the Son have their origin in the Father.
Orthodox Worship and Religious Practices
Orthodox worship is highly liturgical and is central to the history and life of the church:
By its theological richness, spiritual significance, and variety, the worship of the Orthodox Church represents one of the most significant factors in this church's continuity and identity. It helps to account for the survival of Christianity during the many centuries of Muslim rule in the Middle East and the Balkans when the liturgy was the only source of religious knowledge or experience. {1}
Today, the highest concentration of Orthodox Christians remains in the former Byzantine Empire (Greece, Turkey, and nearby countries) and in Russia. But Orthodoxy is found throughout the world, and approximately 225 million people are Orthodox Christians.
Orthodox cathedral in Khabarovsk, Russia. Photo: Boris Bartels.
Greek Orthodox priest and companion in Athens. Photo: Rob Wallace.
Greek Orthdox icon merchant, Zakynthos, Greece. Photo: Rob Wallace.
Orthodox cathedral in Sameba, Georgia.
Photo: Vladimer Shioshvili.History of Orthodoxy Eastern Orthodoxy arose as a distinct branch of Christianity after the 11th-century "Great Schism" between Eastern and Western Christendom. The separation was not sudden. For centuries there had been significant religious, cultural, and political differences between the Eastern and Western churches.
Religiously, they had different views on topics such as the use of images (icons), the nature of the Holy Spirit, and the date on which Easter should be celebrated.
Culturally, the Greek East has always tended to be more philosophical, abstract and mystical in its thinking, whereas the Latin West tends toward a more pragmatic and legal-minded approach. (According to an old saying, "the Greeks built metaphysical systems; the Romans built roads.")
The political aspects of the split date back to the Emperor Constantine, who moved the capital of the Roman Empire from Rome to Constantinople. Upon his death, the empire was divided between his two sons, one of whom ruled the western half of the empire from Rome while the other ruled the eastern region from Constantinople.
These various factors finally came to a head in 1054 AD, when Pope Leo IX excommunicated the patriarch of Constantinople (the leader of the Eastern church). In response, the patriarch anathematized (condemned) the Pope, and the Christian church has been divided into West ("Roman Catholic") and East ("Greek Orthodox") ever since.
A glimmer of hope for reconciliation came at the onset of the Crusades later that century, when the West came to the aid of the East against the Turks. But especially after the Fourth Crusade (1200-1204), in which crusaders sacked and occupied Constantinople, the only result was an increase in hostility between the two churches.
However, attempts at reconciliation have been renewed in recent years. In 1964, the Second Vatican Council issued this statement praising its Eastern counterparts:
The Catholic Church values highly the institutions of the Eastern Churches, their liturgical rites, ecclesiastical traditions, and their ordering of Christian life. For in those churches, which are distinguished by their venerable antiquity, there is clearly evident the tradition which has come from the Apostles through the Fathers and which is part of the divinely revealed, undivided heritage of the Universal Church. {2}
On December 7, 1965, the mutual excommunication of 1054 was officially removed by Pope Paul VI and Patriarch Athenagoras.
Organization and Religious Authority
The Orthodox Church is organized into several regional, autocephalous (governed by their own head bishops) churches. The Patriarch of Constantinople has the honor of primacy, but does not carry the same authority as the Pope does in Catholicism. Major Orthodox churches include the Greek Orthodox Church, the Russian Orthodox Church, the Romanian Orthodox Church, the Bulgarian Orthodox Church, the Church of Alexandria, the Church of Jerusalem, and the Orthodox Church in America.
The religious authority for Orthodox Christianity is not the Pope as in Catholicism, nor the individual Christian with his Bible as in Protestantism, but the scriptures as interpreted by the seven ecumenical councils of the church.
Orthodoxy also relies heavily on the writings of early Greek fathers such as Gregory of Nyssa, John Chrysostom and St. Basil the Great. Although some Orthodox confessions of faith were produced in the 17th century as counterparts to those of the Reformation, these are regarded as having only historical significance.
Distinctive Orthodox Beliefs
As in all of Christianity, doctrine is important in Eastern Orthodoxy. Orthodox Christians attach great importance to the Bible, the conclusions of the Seven Ecumenical Councils, and right ("orthodox") belief. However, the Eastern Churches approach religious truth differently than the Western Churches. For Orthodox Christians, truth must be experienced personally. There is less focus on the exact definition of religious truth and more on the practical and personal experience of truth in the life of the individual and the church. Precise theological definition, when it occurs, is for the purpose of excluding error.
This emphasis on personal experience of truth flows into Orthodox theology, which has a rich heritage. Especially in the first millenium of Christian history, the Eastern Church produced significant theological and philosophical thought.
In the Western churches, both Catholic and Protestant, sin, grace, and salvation are seen primarily in legal terms. God gave humans freedom, they misused it and broke God's commandments, and now deserve punishment. God's grace results in forgiveness of the transgression and freedom from bondage and punishment.
The Eastern churches see the matter in a different way. For Orthodox theologians, humans were created in the image of God and made to participate fully in the divine life. The full communion with God that Adam and Eve enjoyed meant complete freedom and true humanity, for humans are most human when they are completely united with God.
The result of sin, then, was a blurring of the image of God and a barrier between God and man. The situation in which mankind has been ever since is an unnatural, less human state, which ends in the most unnatural aspect: death. Salvation, then, is a process not of justification or legal pardon, but of reestablishing man's communion with God. This process of repairing the unity of human and divine is sometimes called "deification." This term does not mean that humans become gods but that humans join fully with God's divine life.
The Eastern Orthodox view of the Trinity also differs somewhat from that of the Christian West. In its Christology, Orthodoxy tends to emphasize the divine, preexistent nature of Christ, whereas the West focuses more on his human nature. However, both East and West affirm Christ's full humanity and full divinity as defined by the ecumenical councils. In fact, Christ's humanity is also central to the Orthodox faith, in the doctrine that the divine became human so that humanity might be raised up to the divine life.
The process of being reunited to God, made possible by Christ, is accomplished by the Holy Spirit. The Spirit plays a central role in Orthodox worship: the liturgy usually begins with a prayer to the Spirit and invocations made prior to sacraments are addressed to the Spirit.
It is in the view of the Holy Spirit that Orthodox theology differs from Western theology, and although the difference might now seem rather techinical and abstract, it was a major contributor to the parting of East from West in the 11th century. This dispute is known as the Filioque Controversy, as it centers on the Latin word filioque ("and from the Son"), which was added to the Nicene Creed in Spain in the 6th century. The original creed proclaimed only that the Holy Spirit "proceeds from the Father."
The purpose of the addition was to reaffirm the divinity of the Son, but Eastern theologians objected both to the unilateral editing of a creed produced by an ecumenical council and to the edit itself. For Eastern Christians, both the Spirit and the Son have their origin in the Father.
Orthodox Worship and Religious Practices
Orthodox worship is highly liturgical and is central to the history and life of the church:
By its theological richness, spiritual significance, and variety, the worship of the Orthodox Church represents one of the most significant factors in this church's continuity and identity. It helps to account for the survival of Christianity during the many centuries of Muslim rule in the Middle East and the Balkans when the liturgy was the only source of religious knowledge or experience. {1}
Baptists
The Baptists are one of the largest Protestant Free Church denominations. At the turn of the 21st century, there were about 43 million Baptists worldwide with about 33 million of those in the United States and 216,000 in Britain. There are over 850,000 Baptists in South America and 230,000 in Central America and the Caribbean.
As indicated by their name, the primary Baptist distinctive is their practice of believer's baptism and corresponding rejection of infant baptism. Most Baptists are evangelical in doctrine, but Baptist beliefs can vary due to the congregational governance system that gives autonomy to individual local Baptist churches. Historically, Baptists have played a key role in encouraging religious freedom and separation of church and state.
In the United States, the two largest Baptist organizations are the Southern Baptist Churches (SBC) and American Baptist Churches (ABC), with the former being the more conservative branch. Notable Baptists have included Martin Luther King, Jr., Charles Spurgeon, John Bunyan and Billy Graham.
History of the Baptists
Many Baptists trace their denomination's origins to the early church, a period when the church consisted of committed believers who were baptized upon confession of faith as adults. Baptist beginnings have also been traced to medieval sects who protested against prevailing baptismal theory and practice, and to the Anabaptists of the Continental Reformation, especially in Zurich.
The Anabaptists (spiritual ancestors of the Mennonites, Amish, and Hutterites) share emphasized believer's baptism and religious freedom and were probably influential in the development of Baptist characteristics. However, some Anabaptists differed from the Baptists on many other issues such as pacifism and the communal sharing of material goods.
The origins of the Baptists are most commonly traced to John Smyth and the Separatists. In 1609, John Smyth, led a group of separatists to the Netherlands to start the General Baptist Church with an Arminian theology. In 1616, Henry Jacob led a group of Puritans in England with a Calvinist theology to form a congregational church that would eventually become the Particular Baptists in 1638 under John Spilsbury.
Both groups had members who sailed to America as pilgrims to avoid religious persecution in England and Europe and who started Baptist churches in the early colonies. The Particular and General Baptists would disagree over Arminianism and Calvinism until the formation of the Baptist Union of Great Britain in the 1800s under Andrew Fuller and William Carey for the purpose of missions.
Baptist Churches were established in the American colonies from the mid-17th century. In 1639, Roger Williams founded a church on Baptist principles in Providence, Rhode Island, and this is usually regarded as the beginning of American Baptist history. Also established in the 17th century was a small group known as the Seventh Day Baptists, who required rest and worship on Saturday based on the fourth commandment.
In the 18th century, many of the General Baptist Churches in England were influenced by the Unitarians and ultimately ceased to insist on believer's baptism. However, Dan Taylor (1738-1816) formed a "New Connection" in 1770 that maintained Baptist principles and later united with the Baptist mainstream. The Baptist Missionary Society was founded by Particular Baptists in 1792, which would have a profound impact on the future of the Baptists. The Baptist revival in England inspired the Baptist Churches of America, leading to widespread missionary zeal and growth of the movement across America as the frontier extended. The Baptists became the largest religious group in many of the southern states; today, two-thirds of the members of Black Churches of the USA are Baptists.
In the 19th century, Baptist churches continued their rapid growth, and from their ranks came such great preachers as Charles Spurgeon, Robert Hall, Alexander Maclaren and John Clifford. In Britain, the Baptist Union was formed in 1813. Notable in its development was J.H. Shakespeare, who was secretary for over 25 years (1898-1924). The Baptist movement in Scotland was furthered by Archibald McLean (1733-1812), who strongly emphasized emulating the New Testament pattern in doctrine and practice. The "Scotch Baptists" were one of the sources of the Disciples of Christ movement.
In 1834, a Baptist church was formed in Hamburg under J.C. Oncken, and from there came an extensive Baptist movement in contentiental Europe and among Slavic-speaking people. Baptists were persecuted by Tsarist Russia and suffered from the restrictions on religious freedom under the Soviet regime, but their numbers have grown significantly in recent years (to about 548,000 in 1988). Baptists are the largest Protestant denomination in the countries of the former USSR.
In the 20th century, Baptist missionaries have established churches throughout Asia, Africa and South America. In 1905, the Baptist World Alliance was formed for the purpose of international Baptist cooperation. Its headquarters is in McLean, Virginia.
Baptist Beliefs and Practices
Baptist churches tend to be evangelical in doctrine and Reformed in worship. However, Baptist churches do not have a central governing authority, so a wide range of beliefs can be seen between one Baptist church and another. Some Baptist churches use the following acronym as a summary of the common distinctives of Baptists:
Biblical authority
Autonomy of the local church
Priesthood of the believer
Two ordinances (Believer's Baptism and Communion)
Individual soul liberty
Separation of Church and State
Two offices of the church (Pastor and Deacon)
These and other Baptist distinctives are explored briefly below.
Believer's Baptism
Believer's baptism is an ordinance performed after a person professes Jesus Christ as Lord and Savior and is symbolic of the cleansing or remission of their sins. In the Baptist denomination, baptism plays no role in salvation; it is rather an outward expression of the inward change that has already taken place. Baptists emphasize baptism by full immersion, which follows the method used by John the Baptist. This usually consists of lowering the candidate in water backwards, while a pastor recites the Trinitarian formula of Matthew 28:19. This mode of baptism is also preferred for its parallel imagery to the death, burial, and resurrection of Jesus. A few Baptist churches allow for baptism by sprinkling as an alternative method for the disabled or elderly, and most Baptist churches will recognize adult baptisms performed in other mainstream Christian churches. Baptism is seen as a public identification of the person with Christianity and that particular church and is often used as a criterion for membership in Baptist churches.
Most Anabaptist, Pentecostal, Restorationist and non-denominational churches share this understanding of baptism.
Congregational Governance
Congregationalist church governance gives autonomy to individual local churches in areas of policy, polity and doctrine. Baptist churches are not under the direct administrative control of any other body, such as a national council, or a leader such as a bishop or pope. Administration, leadership and doctrine are decided democratically by the lay members of each individual church, which accounts for the variation of beliefs from one Baptist church to another. John Wycliffe and Huldrych Zwingli were strong influences in the early development of the idea of congregationalism. In a manner typical of other congregationalists, many cooperative associations of Baptists have arisen.
Other congregationalist churches include Anabaptists, Pentecostal, Congregationalist Churches, the United Church of Christ and many non-denominational churches.
Separation of Church and State
Baptists have played an important role in the struggle for freedom of religion and separation of church and state in England, the United States, and other countries, including many who were imprisoned and even died for their faith. Some important figures in this struggle were John Smyth, Thomas Helwys, Edward Wightman, Leonard Busher, Roger Williams (who was a Baptist for a short period but became a seeker), John Clarke, Isaac Backus, and John Leland.
In 1612 John Smyth wrote, "the magistrate is not by virtue of his office to meddle with religion, or matters of conscience". That same year, Thomas Helwys wrote that the King of England could "comaund what of man he will, and wee are to obey it," but concerning the church -- "with this Kingdom, our lord the King hath nothing to do." In 1614, Leonard Busher wrote what is believed to be the earliest Baptist treatise dealing exclusively with the subject of religious liberty.
Baptists were influential in the formation of the first civil government based on the separation of church and state in what is now Rhode Island. Anabaptists and Quakers also share a strong history in the development of separation of church and state.
The Danbury Baptist Association of Danbury, Connecticut sent a letter, dated October 7, 1801, to the newly elected President Thomas Jefferson, expressing concern over the lack in their state constitution of explicit protection of religious liberty, and against government establishment of religion. As a religious minority in Connecticut, the Danbury Baptists were concerned that a religious majority might "reproach their chief Magistrate... because he will not, dare not assume the prerogatives of Jehovah and make Laws to govern the Kingdom of Christ," thus establishing a state religion at the cost of the liberties of religious minorities. In their letter to the President, the Danbury Baptists also affirmed that "Our Sentiments are uniformly on the side of Religious Liberty — That Religion is at all times and places a matter between God and individuals — That no man ought to suffer in name, person, or effects on account of his religious Opinions - That the legitimate Power of civil government extends no further than to punish the man who works ill to his neighbor..."
Thomas Jefferson's response, dated January 1, 1802, concurs with the Danbury Baptists' views on religious liberty, and the accompanying separation of civil government from concerns of religious doctrine and practice. Quoting the First Amendment of the United States Constitution, he writes: "...I contemplate with sovereign reverence that act of the whole American people which declared that their legislature should 'make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof,' thus building a wall of separation between Church & State."
While there is a general belief that the state should not decide what the church can believe and should not prohibit the practice of religion, Baptists do disagree among themselves as to the degree to which the church should influence the state and what exactly constitutes state prohibition of religion. These disagreements manifest themselves in issues such as whether the state should restrict gambling, the purchase of alcohol or abortion and whether the prohibition of state-sanctioned public prayer in public schools in the United States constitutes state interference in religion.
Baptist Lifestyle
Many conservative Baptists oppose gambling, alcohol, tobacco, and some prohibit dancing and movies. Especially in areas where Southern Baptists form a majority of the population, the denomination has been successful in imposing its values on the general population – "dry counties" in the South or the ban on music and dancing in the film Footloose) are examples.
Biblical Authority
Authority of the Scriptures or sola scriptura states that the Bible is the only authoritative source of God's truth and any view that cannot be directly tied to a scriptural reference is generally considered to be based on human traditions rather than God's leading. Each person is responsible before God for his or her own understanding of the bible and is encouraged to work out their own salvation with fear and trembling.
Biblical inerrancy is also a common position held by Baptists in addition to literal interpretations of the bible and fundamentalist theologies. However, because of the variety allowed under congregational governance, many Baptist churches are neither literalist nor fundamentalist, although most do believe in biblical inerrancy. Even though it is only the Bible that is authoritative, Baptists also cite other works as illustrative of doctrine. One work which is commonly read by Baptists is the allegory Pilgrim's Progress by John Bunyan. This is a position shared by almost all post-Reformation Christian groups, with only a few exceptions (such as Quakers).
Priesthood of All Believers
The Baptist position of the priesthood of believers is one column that upholds their belief in religious liberty. Priesthood of all believers removes the hierarchical layers of priests, traditions and authority so that all Christians have equal access to God's revelation of truth through the careful study of the Bible. This is a position shared by all post-reformational Christian groups.
Justification by Faith
The doctrine of justification by faith states that it is by faith alone that we receive salvation and not through any works of our own. Baptists place a strong emphasis on the concept of salvation. Baptist theology teaches that humans have been contaminated by the sin of Adam and Eve's rebellion against God and that for this sin we are condemned to damnation. The theology holds that Christ died on the cross to give humans the promise of everlasting life, but that this requires that each individual accept Christ into his life and ask for forgiveness. Nevertheless, the Baptist view of soteriology runs the gamut from Calvinism to Arminianism. Justification by faith is a position shared by all post-reformational Christian groups.
Variations in Baptist Belief and Practice
Because of the congregational style of church governance on doctrine, doctrine often varies significantly between one Baptist church and another, especially in the following areas:
•Calvinism vs. Arminianism
•nature of Law and Gospel
•ordination of women
•homosexuality
•eschatology (end times)
Baptists generally believe in the literal Second Coming of Christ at which time God will sit in judgment and divide humanity between the saved and the lost (the Great White Throne judgment Book of Revelation 20:11) and Christ will sit in judgment of the believers (the Judgment Seat of Christ Second Epistle to the Corinthians 5:10), rewarding them for things done while alive. Amillennialism, dispensationalism, and historic premillennialism stand as the main eschatological views of Baptists, with views such as postmillennialism and preterism receiving only scant support.
As indicated by their name, the primary Baptist distinctive is their practice of believer's baptism and corresponding rejection of infant baptism. Most Baptists are evangelical in doctrine, but Baptist beliefs can vary due to the congregational governance system that gives autonomy to individual local Baptist churches. Historically, Baptists have played a key role in encouraging religious freedom and separation of church and state.
In the United States, the two largest Baptist organizations are the Southern Baptist Churches (SBC) and American Baptist Churches (ABC), with the former being the more conservative branch. Notable Baptists have included Martin Luther King, Jr., Charles Spurgeon, John Bunyan and Billy Graham.
History of the Baptists
Many Baptists trace their denomination's origins to the early church, a period when the church consisted of committed believers who were baptized upon confession of faith as adults. Baptist beginnings have also been traced to medieval sects who protested against prevailing baptismal theory and practice, and to the Anabaptists of the Continental Reformation, especially in Zurich.
The Anabaptists (spiritual ancestors of the Mennonites, Amish, and Hutterites) share emphasized believer's baptism and religious freedom and were probably influential in the development of Baptist characteristics. However, some Anabaptists differed from the Baptists on many other issues such as pacifism and the communal sharing of material goods.
The origins of the Baptists are most commonly traced to John Smyth and the Separatists. In 1609, John Smyth, led a group of separatists to the Netherlands to start the General Baptist Church with an Arminian theology. In 1616, Henry Jacob led a group of Puritans in England with a Calvinist theology to form a congregational church that would eventually become the Particular Baptists in 1638 under John Spilsbury.
Both groups had members who sailed to America as pilgrims to avoid religious persecution in England and Europe and who started Baptist churches in the early colonies. The Particular and General Baptists would disagree over Arminianism and Calvinism until the formation of the Baptist Union of Great Britain in the 1800s under Andrew Fuller and William Carey for the purpose of missions.
Baptist Churches were established in the American colonies from the mid-17th century. In 1639, Roger Williams founded a church on Baptist principles in Providence, Rhode Island, and this is usually regarded as the beginning of American Baptist history. Also established in the 17th century was a small group known as the Seventh Day Baptists, who required rest and worship on Saturday based on the fourth commandment.
In the 18th century, many of the General Baptist Churches in England were influenced by the Unitarians and ultimately ceased to insist on believer's baptism. However, Dan Taylor (1738-1816) formed a "New Connection" in 1770 that maintained Baptist principles and later united with the Baptist mainstream. The Baptist Missionary Society was founded by Particular Baptists in 1792, which would have a profound impact on the future of the Baptists. The Baptist revival in England inspired the Baptist Churches of America, leading to widespread missionary zeal and growth of the movement across America as the frontier extended. The Baptists became the largest religious group in many of the southern states; today, two-thirds of the members of Black Churches of the USA are Baptists.
In the 19th century, Baptist churches continued their rapid growth, and from their ranks came such great preachers as Charles Spurgeon, Robert Hall, Alexander Maclaren and John Clifford. In Britain, the Baptist Union was formed in 1813. Notable in its development was J.H. Shakespeare, who was secretary for over 25 years (1898-1924). The Baptist movement in Scotland was furthered by Archibald McLean (1733-1812), who strongly emphasized emulating the New Testament pattern in doctrine and practice. The "Scotch Baptists" were one of the sources of the Disciples of Christ movement.
In 1834, a Baptist church was formed in Hamburg under J.C. Oncken, and from there came an extensive Baptist movement in contentiental Europe and among Slavic-speaking people. Baptists were persecuted by Tsarist Russia and suffered from the restrictions on religious freedom under the Soviet regime, but their numbers have grown significantly in recent years (to about 548,000 in 1988). Baptists are the largest Protestant denomination in the countries of the former USSR.
In the 20th century, Baptist missionaries have established churches throughout Asia, Africa and South America. In 1905, the Baptist World Alliance was formed for the purpose of international Baptist cooperation. Its headquarters is in McLean, Virginia.
Baptist Beliefs and Practices
Baptist churches tend to be evangelical in doctrine and Reformed in worship. However, Baptist churches do not have a central governing authority, so a wide range of beliefs can be seen between one Baptist church and another. Some Baptist churches use the following acronym as a summary of the common distinctives of Baptists:
Biblical authority
Autonomy of the local church
Priesthood of the believer
Two ordinances (Believer's Baptism and Communion)
Individual soul liberty
Separation of Church and State
Two offices of the church (Pastor and Deacon)
These and other Baptist distinctives are explored briefly below.
Believer's Baptism
Believer's baptism is an ordinance performed after a person professes Jesus Christ as Lord and Savior and is symbolic of the cleansing or remission of their sins. In the Baptist denomination, baptism plays no role in salvation; it is rather an outward expression of the inward change that has already taken place. Baptists emphasize baptism by full immersion, which follows the method used by John the Baptist. This usually consists of lowering the candidate in water backwards, while a pastor recites the Trinitarian formula of Matthew 28:19. This mode of baptism is also preferred for its parallel imagery to the death, burial, and resurrection of Jesus. A few Baptist churches allow for baptism by sprinkling as an alternative method for the disabled or elderly, and most Baptist churches will recognize adult baptisms performed in other mainstream Christian churches. Baptism is seen as a public identification of the person with Christianity and that particular church and is often used as a criterion for membership in Baptist churches.
Most Anabaptist, Pentecostal, Restorationist and non-denominational churches share this understanding of baptism.
Congregational Governance
Congregationalist church governance gives autonomy to individual local churches in areas of policy, polity and doctrine. Baptist churches are not under the direct administrative control of any other body, such as a national council, or a leader such as a bishop or pope. Administration, leadership and doctrine are decided democratically by the lay members of each individual church, which accounts for the variation of beliefs from one Baptist church to another. John Wycliffe and Huldrych Zwingli were strong influences in the early development of the idea of congregationalism. In a manner typical of other congregationalists, many cooperative associations of Baptists have arisen.
Other congregationalist churches include Anabaptists, Pentecostal, Congregationalist Churches, the United Church of Christ and many non-denominational churches.
Separation of Church and State
Baptists have played an important role in the struggle for freedom of religion and separation of church and state in England, the United States, and other countries, including many who were imprisoned and even died for their faith. Some important figures in this struggle were John Smyth, Thomas Helwys, Edward Wightman, Leonard Busher, Roger Williams (who was a Baptist for a short period but became a seeker), John Clarke, Isaac Backus, and John Leland.
In 1612 John Smyth wrote, "the magistrate is not by virtue of his office to meddle with religion, or matters of conscience". That same year, Thomas Helwys wrote that the King of England could "comaund what of man he will, and wee are to obey it," but concerning the church -- "with this Kingdom, our lord the King hath nothing to do." In 1614, Leonard Busher wrote what is believed to be the earliest Baptist treatise dealing exclusively with the subject of religious liberty.
Baptists were influential in the formation of the first civil government based on the separation of church and state in what is now Rhode Island. Anabaptists and Quakers also share a strong history in the development of separation of church and state.
The Danbury Baptist Association of Danbury, Connecticut sent a letter, dated October 7, 1801, to the newly elected President Thomas Jefferson, expressing concern over the lack in their state constitution of explicit protection of religious liberty, and against government establishment of religion. As a religious minority in Connecticut, the Danbury Baptists were concerned that a religious majority might "reproach their chief Magistrate... because he will not, dare not assume the prerogatives of Jehovah and make Laws to govern the Kingdom of Christ," thus establishing a state religion at the cost of the liberties of religious minorities. In their letter to the President, the Danbury Baptists also affirmed that "Our Sentiments are uniformly on the side of Religious Liberty — That Religion is at all times and places a matter between God and individuals — That no man ought to suffer in name, person, or effects on account of his religious Opinions - That the legitimate Power of civil government extends no further than to punish the man who works ill to his neighbor..."
Thomas Jefferson's response, dated January 1, 1802, concurs with the Danbury Baptists' views on religious liberty, and the accompanying separation of civil government from concerns of religious doctrine and practice. Quoting the First Amendment of the United States Constitution, he writes: "...I contemplate with sovereign reverence that act of the whole American people which declared that their legislature should 'make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof,' thus building a wall of separation between Church & State."
While there is a general belief that the state should not decide what the church can believe and should not prohibit the practice of religion, Baptists do disagree among themselves as to the degree to which the church should influence the state and what exactly constitutes state prohibition of religion. These disagreements manifest themselves in issues such as whether the state should restrict gambling, the purchase of alcohol or abortion and whether the prohibition of state-sanctioned public prayer in public schools in the United States constitutes state interference in religion.
Baptist Lifestyle
Many conservative Baptists oppose gambling, alcohol, tobacco, and some prohibit dancing and movies. Especially in areas where Southern Baptists form a majority of the population, the denomination has been successful in imposing its values on the general population – "dry counties" in the South or the ban on music and dancing in the film Footloose) are examples.
Biblical Authority
Authority of the Scriptures or sola scriptura states that the Bible is the only authoritative source of God's truth and any view that cannot be directly tied to a scriptural reference is generally considered to be based on human traditions rather than God's leading. Each person is responsible before God for his or her own understanding of the bible and is encouraged to work out their own salvation with fear and trembling.
Biblical inerrancy is also a common position held by Baptists in addition to literal interpretations of the bible and fundamentalist theologies. However, because of the variety allowed under congregational governance, many Baptist churches are neither literalist nor fundamentalist, although most do believe in biblical inerrancy. Even though it is only the Bible that is authoritative, Baptists also cite other works as illustrative of doctrine. One work which is commonly read by Baptists is the allegory Pilgrim's Progress by John Bunyan. This is a position shared by almost all post-Reformation Christian groups, with only a few exceptions (such as Quakers).
Priesthood of All Believers
The Baptist position of the priesthood of believers is one column that upholds their belief in religious liberty. Priesthood of all believers removes the hierarchical layers of priests, traditions and authority so that all Christians have equal access to God's revelation of truth through the careful study of the Bible. This is a position shared by all post-reformational Christian groups.
Justification by Faith
The doctrine of justification by faith states that it is by faith alone that we receive salvation and not through any works of our own. Baptists place a strong emphasis on the concept of salvation. Baptist theology teaches that humans have been contaminated by the sin of Adam and Eve's rebellion against God and that for this sin we are condemned to damnation. The theology holds that Christ died on the cross to give humans the promise of everlasting life, but that this requires that each individual accept Christ into his life and ask for forgiveness. Nevertheless, the Baptist view of soteriology runs the gamut from Calvinism to Arminianism. Justification by faith is a position shared by all post-reformational Christian groups.
Variations in Baptist Belief and Practice
Because of the congregational style of church governance on doctrine, doctrine often varies significantly between one Baptist church and another, especially in the following areas:
•Calvinism vs. Arminianism
•nature of Law and Gospel
•ordination of women
•homosexuality
•eschatology (end times)
Baptists generally believe in the literal Second Coming of Christ at which time God will sit in judgment and divide humanity between the saved and the lost (the Great White Throne judgment Book of Revelation 20:11) and Christ will sit in judgment of the believers (the Judgment Seat of Christ Second Epistle to the Corinthians 5:10), rewarding them for things done while alive. Amillennialism, dispensationalism, and historic premillennialism stand as the main eschatological views of Baptists, with views such as postmillennialism and preterism receiving only scant support.
Church bodies that have some connection with Anglicanism are placed into one of the following categories.
Churches of the Anglican Communion. Anglican churches (by province) in communion with the See of Canterbury. There are currently 38 provinces in this category, including the Church of England, the Anglican Church of Australia, and the Episcopal Church in the United States of America. See below for the complete list.
Churches in Full Communion. This category was defined by the 1958 Lambeth Conference. It consists of those churches in full communion with the See of Canterbury, but which are not culturally or denominationally Anglican. Examples include the Old Catholic Church of Germany and the Mar Thoma Syrian Church of India.
Churches Not in Communion. These are the denominations liturgically and culturally most similar to the member churches of the Anglican Communion, but who have usually broken away from the Anglican church because of disagreement over some doctrinal issue, and the property of not being in communion with Canterbury is part of their identity. Examples include the Anglican Catholic Church, the Anglican Church in America, and the Continuing Church of England.
List of Churches of the Anglican Communion
•Anglican Church in Aotearoa, New Zealand and Polynesia
•Anglican Church of Australia
•Anglican Church of Canada
•Anglican Church of Kenya
•Anglican Church of Korea
•Anglican Church of Mexico
•Anglican Church of Papua New Guinea
•Anglican Church of the Region of Central America
•Anglican Church of the Province of the Southern Cone (South America)
•Church in Wales
•Church of England
•Church of Ireland
•Church of Nigeria
•Church of North India
•Church of South India
•Church of Uganda
•Church of the Province of Burundi
•Church of the Province of Central Africa
•Church of the Province of Melanesia
•Church of the Province of Myanmar
•Church of the Province of Rwanda
•Church of the Province of South East Asia
•Church of the Province of Southern Africa
•Church of the Province of Tanzania
•Church of the Province of the Indian Ocean
•Church of the Province of the West Indies
•Church of the Province of West Africa
•Episcopal Church in Jerusalem and the Middle East
•Episcopal Church in the United States of America
•Episcopal Church of Brazil
•Episcopal Church of Cuba
•Episcopal Church of the Sudan
•Hong Kong Sheng Kung Hui
•Lusitanian Church of Portugal
•Nippon Sei Ko Kai (Japan)
•Philippine Episcopal Church
•Scottish Episcopal Church
•Spanish Reformed Episcopal Church
Churches of the Anglican Communion. Anglican churches (by province) in communion with the See of Canterbury. There are currently 38 provinces in this category, including the Church of England, the Anglican Church of Australia, and the Episcopal Church in the United States of America. See below for the complete list.
Churches in Full Communion. This category was defined by the 1958 Lambeth Conference. It consists of those churches in full communion with the See of Canterbury, but which are not culturally or denominationally Anglican. Examples include the Old Catholic Church of Germany and the Mar Thoma Syrian Church of India.
Churches Not in Communion. These are the denominations liturgically and culturally most similar to the member churches of the Anglican Communion, but who have usually broken away from the Anglican church because of disagreement over some doctrinal issue, and the property of not being in communion with Canterbury is part of their identity. Examples include the Anglican Catholic Church, the Anglican Church in America, and the Continuing Church of England.
List of Churches of the Anglican Communion
•Anglican Church in Aotearoa, New Zealand and Polynesia
•Anglican Church of Australia
•Anglican Church of Canada
•Anglican Church of Kenya
•Anglican Church of Korea
•Anglican Church of Mexico
•Anglican Church of Papua New Guinea
•Anglican Church of the Region of Central America
•Anglican Church of the Province of the Southern Cone (South America)
•Church in Wales
•Church of England
•Church of Ireland
•Church of Nigeria
•Church of North India
•Church of South India
•Church of Uganda
•Church of the Province of Burundi
•Church of the Province of Central Africa
•Church of the Province of Melanesia
•Church of the Province of Myanmar
•Church of the Province of Rwanda
•Church of the Province of South East Asia
•Church of the Province of Southern Africa
•Church of the Province of Tanzania
•Church of the Province of the Indian Ocean
•Church of the Province of the West Indies
•Church of the Province of West Africa
•Episcopal Church in Jerusalem and the Middle East
•Episcopal Church in the United States of America
•Episcopal Church of Brazil
•Episcopal Church of Cuba
•Episcopal Church of the Sudan
•Hong Kong Sheng Kung Hui
•Lusitanian Church of Portugal
•Nippon Sei Ko Kai (Japan)
•Philippine Episcopal Church
•Scottish Episcopal Church
•Spanish Reformed Episcopal Church
Anglican/Episcopalian Beliefs and Practices
Anglican/Episcopalian Beliefs and Practices
The Book of Common Prayer
Anglicanism in general allows for significant freedom and diversity within the bounds of scripture, reason and tradition. This has led to considerable variation in doctrine and practice between Anglican churches in different provinces. For example, some Anglican churches ordain women to the priesthood while others do not, and some emphasize Protestant doctrines while others hold more to Catholic teachings.
This diversity has sometimes caused strain with regard to issues of authority and comprehensiveness of the Anglican Communion, which is especially apparent after the recent ordination of a practicing homosexual bishop in North America, which most other Anglican churches do not agree with.
Anglican rituals are expressed primarily in the Book of Common Prayer, a collection of liturgy developed by Thomas Cranmer in the 16 th century and periodically modified since then. However, the Book of Common Prayer is not held to be normative. Much diversity has recently developed in Anglican worship around the world, and many different Prayer Books have been issued. In general, Anglican worship tends to be Catholic or "High Church" in flavor, with prescribed rituals and readings, bishops and priests, vestments, saints' days and elaborately decorated churches.
The Book of Common Prayer
Anglicanism in general allows for significant freedom and diversity within the bounds of scripture, reason and tradition. This has led to considerable variation in doctrine and practice between Anglican churches in different provinces. For example, some Anglican churches ordain women to the priesthood while others do not, and some emphasize Protestant doctrines while others hold more to Catholic teachings.
This diversity has sometimes caused strain with regard to issues of authority and comprehensiveness of the Anglican Communion, which is especially apparent after the recent ordination of a practicing homosexual bishop in North America, which most other Anglican churches do not agree with.
Anglican rituals are expressed primarily in the Book of Common Prayer, a collection of liturgy developed by Thomas Cranmer in the 16 th century and periodically modified since then. However, the Book of Common Prayer is not held to be normative. Much diversity has recently developed in Anglican worship around the world, and many different Prayer Books have been issued. In general, Anglican worship tends to be Catholic or "High Church" in flavor, with prescribed rituals and readings, bishops and priests, vestments, saints' days and elaborately decorated churches.
History of Anglicanism
The churches of the Anglican Communion have their historical roots in the English Reformation, when King Henry VIII (r. 1509-1547) wished to obtain a divorce that the pope would not grant. Through the Act of Supremacy of 1534, the king made himself the "supreme head" of the Church of England in place of the Pope.
After this dramatic move, King Henry dissolved England's monasteries, destroyed Catholic shrines, and ordered the Great Bible (in English) to be placed in all churches. However, Henry allowed few doctrinal changes and very little changed in the religious life of the common English worshipper. Under Henry VIII, and the Church of England remained almost fully Catholic with the exception of loyalty to Rome.
Thomas Cranmer
A power struggle between English Protestants and Catholics ensued during the reigns of Edward VI and Mary I. Under King Edward, Archbishop of Canterbury Thomas Cranmer contributed a great deal to the Protestant movement, including the first two versions of the Book of Common Prayer (1549 and 1552) and the 42 Articles (1553). After the ascension of the Catholic "Bloody Mary" to the throne in 1553, England was restored to Catholicism, much of the reforming work under Kings Henry and Edward was undone, and Thomas Cranmer was burned at the stake.
Queen Elizabeth I
Protestantism finally emerged victorious under Queen Elizabeth I (r. 1558-1603). It was under Elizabeth that "Anglicanism" took shape, established on the notion of a via media between Catholicism and Protestantism (specifically Reformed Protestantism). Elizabeth appointed Protestant bishops, but reintroduced a crucifix in her chapel, tried to insist on traditional clerical vestments, and made other attempts to satisfy conservative opinion. The 42 Articles were reduced to 39 and the Book of Common Prayer was reissued. The 39 Articles and the Book of Common Prayer, which together expressed the faith and practice of the Church of England, were sufficiently vague to allow for a variety of interpretations along the Catholic-Protestant spectrum.
After Elizabeth, Calvinist influences were dominant for a time, but High Churchmen regained control of the Church of England in the Restoration of 1660. In the latter 17th and early 18th centuries, Anglicanism was characterized by its emphases on reason, simple devotional religion and moral living. After about 1690, the controversy quieted down and the Church of England settled into the form that still characterizes it today.
Evangelicalism arose in 18th century in part as a reaction against the lack of spiritual fervor and enthusiasm in the Church. This had a balancing effect on Anglicanism (and there remains a strong evangelical group within the Church of England), but evangelicals also went beyond the bounds of the traditional Anglican outlook and many, like John Wesley's Methodists, broke away from the Church of England.
Another important development in the history of Anglicanism, the Oxford Movement, began in 1833. Also known as the Catholic Revival, this movement sought to restore the sacraments, rituals and outward forms of Catholicism to the Church of England. By the mid-20th century, many of the practices advocated by this group had been incorporated.
Also in the 19th century, the Church of England found room for the new German biblical criticism and liberal theology. Scholarship is still highly regarded in Anglicanism, and Anglican scholars have generally been free to adopt views ranging from conservative to radical while remaining in the Anglican fold.
Anglicanism expanded along with the British Empire, creating a network of autonomous churches that were loyal to the faith and forms of the Church of England. After the American Revolution, Anglicans in the U.S. called themselves Episcopalians (the name reflecting the role of the episcopate, or bishops) to distinguish themselves from the British crown and the Church of England. Today, the Episcopalian Church in the United States and many other Anglican churches in former British colonies are members of the Anglican Communion.
The 21st century has proven to be an important point in history for Anglicanism. The recent ordination of a gay bishop in America and the disapproving reaction from the Communion will have great implications for the question of how much variation can be tolerated within Anglicanism. And, as always, the Archbishop of Canterbury, the bishops and the priests in Anglican churches must decide how to react to the continuing influences of biblical criticism, liberal theology and modern ethical values.
After this dramatic move, King Henry dissolved England's monasteries, destroyed Catholic shrines, and ordered the Great Bible (in English) to be placed in all churches. However, Henry allowed few doctrinal changes and very little changed in the religious life of the common English worshipper. Under Henry VIII, and the Church of England remained almost fully Catholic with the exception of loyalty to Rome.
Thomas Cranmer
A power struggle between English Protestants and Catholics ensued during the reigns of Edward VI and Mary I. Under King Edward, Archbishop of Canterbury Thomas Cranmer contributed a great deal to the Protestant movement, including the first two versions of the Book of Common Prayer (1549 and 1552) and the 42 Articles (1553). After the ascension of the Catholic "Bloody Mary" to the throne in 1553, England was restored to Catholicism, much of the reforming work under Kings Henry and Edward was undone, and Thomas Cranmer was burned at the stake.
Queen Elizabeth I
Protestantism finally emerged victorious under Queen Elizabeth I (r. 1558-1603). It was under Elizabeth that "Anglicanism" took shape, established on the notion of a via media between Catholicism and Protestantism (specifically Reformed Protestantism). Elizabeth appointed Protestant bishops, but reintroduced a crucifix in her chapel, tried to insist on traditional clerical vestments, and made other attempts to satisfy conservative opinion. The 42 Articles were reduced to 39 and the Book of Common Prayer was reissued. The 39 Articles and the Book of Common Prayer, which together expressed the faith and practice of the Church of England, were sufficiently vague to allow for a variety of interpretations along the Catholic-Protestant spectrum.
After Elizabeth, Calvinist influences were dominant for a time, but High Churchmen regained control of the Church of England in the Restoration of 1660. In the latter 17th and early 18th centuries, Anglicanism was characterized by its emphases on reason, simple devotional religion and moral living. After about 1690, the controversy quieted down and the Church of England settled into the form that still characterizes it today.
Evangelicalism arose in 18th century in part as a reaction against the lack of spiritual fervor and enthusiasm in the Church. This had a balancing effect on Anglicanism (and there remains a strong evangelical group within the Church of England), but evangelicals also went beyond the bounds of the traditional Anglican outlook and many, like John Wesley's Methodists, broke away from the Church of England.
Another important development in the history of Anglicanism, the Oxford Movement, began in 1833. Also known as the Catholic Revival, this movement sought to restore the sacraments, rituals and outward forms of Catholicism to the Church of England. By the mid-20th century, many of the practices advocated by this group had been incorporated.
Also in the 19th century, the Church of England found room for the new German biblical criticism and liberal theology. Scholarship is still highly regarded in Anglicanism, and Anglican scholars have generally been free to adopt views ranging from conservative to radical while remaining in the Anglican fold.
Anglicanism expanded along with the British Empire, creating a network of autonomous churches that were loyal to the faith and forms of the Church of England. After the American Revolution, Anglicans in the U.S. called themselves Episcopalians (the name reflecting the role of the episcopate, or bishops) to distinguish themselves from the British crown and the Church of England. Today, the Episcopalian Church in the United States and many other Anglican churches in former British colonies are members of the Anglican Communion.
The 21st century has proven to be an important point in history for Anglicanism. The recent ordination of a gay bishop in America and the disapproving reaction from the Communion will have great implications for the question of how much variation can be tolerated within Anglicanism. And, as always, the Archbishop of Canterbury, the bishops and the priests in Anglican churches must decide how to react to the continuing influences of biblical criticism, liberal theology and modern ethical values.
Anglicanism and Episcopalianism
The Anglican Communion is an organization of autonomous national churches connected with the Church of England, which has its roots in the 16th century Reformation.
Anglicanism or Episcopalianism is the general form of doctrine, worship and structure based on the tradition of the Church of England, which extends beyond membership in the Anglican Communion.
Anglicanism is characterized by a via media (middle way) between Catholicism and Protestantism. Anglicans are not subject to the Pope and are Protestant in most areas of doctrine, but Anglicans also retain many Catholic forms of worship, including a hierarchy based on bishops (which is the meaning of the world "episcopalian").
Anglicanism or Episcopalianism is the general form of doctrine, worship and structure based on the tradition of the Church of England, which extends beyond membership in the Anglican Communion.
Anglicanism is characterized by a via media (middle way) between Catholicism and Protestantism. Anglicans are not subject to the Pope and are Protestant in most areas of doctrine, but Anglicans also retain many Catholic forms of worship, including a hierarchy based on bishops (which is the meaning of the world "episcopalian").
The Amish
The Amish (sometimes called Amish Mennonites) are members of an Anabaptist Christian denomination who are especially known for their separation from society and rejection of most modern technology. The denomination originated in Switzerland, with the strict teachings of Jacob Amman that led to a split from other Mennonites in 1693.
History of the Amish
The Amish are one of several denominations that developed out of the Radical Reformation in 16th-century Europe. The Anabaptists, as the radical reformers came to be called, differed from mainstream Protestants in their rejection of all church authority, belief that a church consists only of baptized believers and rejection of infant baptism. Anabaptist denominations include the Mennonites, Hutterites and the Amish.
The Amish arose from a schism among Swiss Mennonites in 1693. Mennonite leader Jakob Amman (1656-1730) and his followers applied the Mennonite practice of shunning very strictly and condemned other Mennonites for not doing so.
Amish communities sprang up in Switzerland, Alsace, Germany, Russia and Holland, but there are no Amish remaining in Europe today. Many emigrated to North America in the 19th and 20th centuries and those who stayed behind gradually assimilated with Mennonite groups.
Amish began emigrating to North America early in the 18th century, in large part to avoid religious persecution and compulsory military service. They first settled in eastern Pennsylvania, where a large settlement remains today.
In 1850, there was a schism between the traditional Old Order Amish and the "New Order" Amish, who accept social change and technological innovation but retain most other Amish practices.
There are now about 200,000 Old Order Amish living in more than 200 settlements in the United States and Canada; the largest communities are in Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indiana, Iowa, Illinois, and Kansas, and others exist in Wisconsin, Missouri, and Minnesota.
Amish Texts
As conservative Protestants, the Amish value the Bible alone as the source of religious authority. But in most Amish homes a special place is reserved alongside the Bible for the Martyr's Mirror, a book chronicling Amish history and honoring the many Amish, Mennonites, and Anabaptists who died for their faith.
The Budget, established in 1890, is the national newspaper serving the many Amish and Mennonite communities; it is published in Sugarcreek, Ohio.
Distinctive Beliefs of the Amish
Amish religious beliefs are virtually the same as that of the Mennonites and other religious reformers. They believe in the importance of individual Bible study and the necessity of living a life free of sin after adult baptism. The Amish are primarily set apart from other Mennonites in their great emphasis on the values of humility, family, community, and separation from the world.
Two key concepts for understanding Amish practices are their revulsion of Hochmut (pride, arrogance, haughtiness) and the high value they place on Demut (humility) and Gelassenheit (calmness, composure, placidity). This all translates into a reluctance to be forward, self-promoting, or to assert oneself in any way. The willingness to submit to the will of God, as expressed through group norms, is at odds with the individualism that is central to general American culture.
Distinctive Practices of the Amish
Religious Services
As in Mennonite communities, the Amish celebrate Holy Communion twice each year and practice foot washing. Persons are baptized when they are admitted to formal membership in the church, about the age of 17 to 20 years.
Amish religious services are conducted in High German. Pennsylvania Dutch (which is not Dutch but a mixture of High German, various German dialects and English) is spoken at home and in daily discourse. Children learn English at school.
Religious services are held on a rotating basis in family homes and barns. A large wagon, filled with benches for the service and dishes and food for the meal that follows, will often be pulled to the host's property.
The use of musical instruments is not permitted in an Amish church service or at any time, as it is considered wordly and vain. Singing, however, is important to Amish life, whether at work or at play, at home or in church. Selections from the Ausband (the Amish hymnal) are commonly sung. Group singing is always in unison and never harmonized.
Education
Amish children attend one-room schools run by the community and they attend school only through the eighth grade (this was deemed acceptable by a 1972 U.S. Supreme Court ruling). School classes are in English and focus on the basics of reading, writing, and math, along with Amish history, farming techniques and homemaking skills.
Rumspringa
Rumspringa ("running around") is the general Amish term for adolescence and the period leading up to serious courtship during which rules may be relaxed a little. As in non-Amish families, it is understood as a practical matter that there will likely be a certain amount of misbehavior during this period, but it is neither encouraged nor overlooked.
At the end of this period, Amish young adults are expected to find a spouse and be baptized. But in accordance with Anabaptist doctrine, this must be a free and personal decision. At this point, some young people choose not to join the church and instead live the rest of their lives in a different community or wider society. If a young man joins a Mennonite church or other less exacting religion, the Amish will often say “he got his hair cut.” If a young person abandons the faith altogether, they say that person “went English.”
Some communities will actively shun (see below) those who decide to leave the community, even those going to a different Amish congregation with different doctrines. Still other communities practice hardly any shunning, keeping close family and social contact with those who leave.
The Ordnung
Everyday life and customs in the Amish community are governed by an unwritten code of behavior called the Ordnung. The Ordnung began as a basic outline of Anabaptist faith in the 16th century, and since then, details and new rules have been added that help define what it means to be Amish. It now governs everything from clothing and child bearing to occupational activities and how the weekend is spent.
The enforcement of the rules depends on the bishop, who is charged with upholding Amish values. An Amish minister has explained of the Ordnung:
A respected Ordnung generates peace, love, contentment, equality, and unity. It creates a desire for togetherness and fellowship. It binds marriages, it strengthens family ties to live together, to work together, to worship together and to commune secluded from the world. (Quoted in Donald B. Kraybill, The Riddle of Amish Culture, 98.)
Shunning
Shunning (Meidung, "avoidance") was the practice that set the Amish apart from the Mennonites several centuries ago, and it remains the fundamental way in which the community deals with disobedient members. Amish differ considerably from community to community in the severeness and strictness of the shunning, but in light of the closeness of the community and separation from the outside world, it is invariably a painful experience for the one shunned.
An Amish person may be shunned for a variety of offenses, ranging from major moral offenses to using improper technology. In accordance with the teachings of Jakob Amman, an Amish person in good standing may buy from, sell to, eat with or sleep with a shunned person, even if the person is one's spouse or close relative.
Electricity
The use of electricity is fervently avoided by Amish, because it is a prime connection to the world that could lead to temptations and worldly amenities detrimental to the community and family life. There are occasional exceptions to this general ban, such as adding electric flashers to buggies when required to drive legally and certain types of farm equipment such as milking equipment and electric fences to contain cattle.
Bottle gas is often used to operate appliances, even barbecue grills, and gas-pressured lanterns and lamps might be used for indoor lighting. Amish buggies may also be equipped with such modern conveniences as heaters, windshield wipers, and upholstered seats. The New Order Amish permit the use of electricity, the owning of cars, and telephones in the home.
Clothing and Personal Appearance
The Amish are especially known for their distinctive self-made clothing, which is essentially that of 17th-century European peasants. The distinctive attire reflects the Amish resistance to change, respect for tradition and interpretation of biblical instructions against conforming to the ways of the world (e.g., Romans 12:2). Its plainness also reflects the great importance of humility in Amish communities.
Men and boys wear broad-brimmed black hats, dark-coloured suits, straight-cut coats without lapels, broadfall pants, suspenders, solid-colored shirts and black socks and shoes. Their shirts may fasten with conventional buttons, but their coats and vests fasten with hooks and eyes. Men must grow beards after they marry but are forbidden to have mustaches.
Amish women and girls wear bonnets, long full dresses with capes over the shoulders, shawls, and black shoes and stockings; their capes and aprons are fastened with straight pins or snaps. Amish women never cut their hair, which is worn in a bun, and they are not allowed to wear jewelry of any kind.
Amish in the World: Buggies, Product Sales and Photography
The Amish do not live in complete isolation and are often seen making regular trips into their local town for groceries. They reject the use of automobiles and use either bicycles or horse-drawn buggies instead. The buggies are box-like and usually black, but some are white, gray, or even yellow, and many groups can be distinguished by their chosen color of buggy. The Amish may also travel, for which they usually prefer to use buses.
The Amish are excellent farmers and most communities are almost entirely self-supporting. However, some have to sell produce and crafts to outsiders in order to make a sufficient living. Amish products are widely prized for their quality and craftsmanship.
The Amish typically accept the photographing of their way of life, but they forbid photos of themselves because they believe such things are graven images in violation of the Second Commandment. (For this same reason, the dolls of young Amish girls are traditionally faceless.) It also comes too close to vanity to allow one's portrait to be taken.
Politics and Government
The Amish are not involved in state or national politics, they do not vote, and they do not serve in the military. They also reject social security and most types of insurance. Instead, they pool their resources to help Amish families in need and will visit doctors, dentists, and opticians when necessary.
Recreation
The Amish may be reserved and humble, but they are not always solemn and enjoy common pastimes and games. Volleyball and softball are popular with many Amish families, but they are played strictly for enjoyment and not in a spirit of competition. Flower gardens, if kept simple, are also permissible. Once the daily chores are finished and the schoolwork completed, Amish families will often read or sing together in the evenings, before turning in early.
Organization
The Amish community is divided into church districts, autonomous congregations of about 75 baptized members. This small number is necessary because congregations meet in member's homes — there are no Amish churches. Each district has a bishop, two to four preachers, and an elder and is very independent; there are no Amish general conferences or cooperative agencies.
History of the Amish
The Amish are one of several denominations that developed out of the Radical Reformation in 16th-century Europe. The Anabaptists, as the radical reformers came to be called, differed from mainstream Protestants in their rejection of all church authority, belief that a church consists only of baptized believers and rejection of infant baptism. Anabaptist denominations include the Mennonites, Hutterites and the Amish.
The Amish arose from a schism among Swiss Mennonites in 1693. Mennonite leader Jakob Amman (1656-1730) and his followers applied the Mennonite practice of shunning very strictly and condemned other Mennonites for not doing so.
Amish communities sprang up in Switzerland, Alsace, Germany, Russia and Holland, but there are no Amish remaining in Europe today. Many emigrated to North America in the 19th and 20th centuries and those who stayed behind gradually assimilated with Mennonite groups.
Amish began emigrating to North America early in the 18th century, in large part to avoid religious persecution and compulsory military service. They first settled in eastern Pennsylvania, where a large settlement remains today.
In 1850, there was a schism between the traditional Old Order Amish and the "New Order" Amish, who accept social change and technological innovation but retain most other Amish practices.
There are now about 200,000 Old Order Amish living in more than 200 settlements in the United States and Canada; the largest communities are in Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indiana, Iowa, Illinois, and Kansas, and others exist in Wisconsin, Missouri, and Minnesota.
Amish Texts
As conservative Protestants, the Amish value the Bible alone as the source of religious authority. But in most Amish homes a special place is reserved alongside the Bible for the Martyr's Mirror, a book chronicling Amish history and honoring the many Amish, Mennonites, and Anabaptists who died for their faith.
The Budget, established in 1890, is the national newspaper serving the many Amish and Mennonite communities; it is published in Sugarcreek, Ohio.
Distinctive Beliefs of the Amish
Amish religious beliefs are virtually the same as that of the Mennonites and other religious reformers. They believe in the importance of individual Bible study and the necessity of living a life free of sin after adult baptism. The Amish are primarily set apart from other Mennonites in their great emphasis on the values of humility, family, community, and separation from the world.
Two key concepts for understanding Amish practices are their revulsion of Hochmut (pride, arrogance, haughtiness) and the high value they place on Demut (humility) and Gelassenheit (calmness, composure, placidity). This all translates into a reluctance to be forward, self-promoting, or to assert oneself in any way. The willingness to submit to the will of God, as expressed through group norms, is at odds with the individualism that is central to general American culture.
Distinctive Practices of the Amish
Religious Services
As in Mennonite communities, the Amish celebrate Holy Communion twice each year and practice foot washing. Persons are baptized when they are admitted to formal membership in the church, about the age of 17 to 20 years.
Amish religious services are conducted in High German. Pennsylvania Dutch (which is not Dutch but a mixture of High German, various German dialects and English) is spoken at home and in daily discourse. Children learn English at school.
Religious services are held on a rotating basis in family homes and barns. A large wagon, filled with benches for the service and dishes and food for the meal that follows, will often be pulled to the host's property.
The use of musical instruments is not permitted in an Amish church service or at any time, as it is considered wordly and vain. Singing, however, is important to Amish life, whether at work or at play, at home or in church. Selections from the Ausband (the Amish hymnal) are commonly sung. Group singing is always in unison and never harmonized.
Education
Amish children attend one-room schools run by the community and they attend school only through the eighth grade (this was deemed acceptable by a 1972 U.S. Supreme Court ruling). School classes are in English and focus on the basics of reading, writing, and math, along with Amish history, farming techniques and homemaking skills.
Rumspringa
Rumspringa ("running around") is the general Amish term for adolescence and the period leading up to serious courtship during which rules may be relaxed a little. As in non-Amish families, it is understood as a practical matter that there will likely be a certain amount of misbehavior during this period, but it is neither encouraged nor overlooked.
At the end of this period, Amish young adults are expected to find a spouse and be baptized. But in accordance with Anabaptist doctrine, this must be a free and personal decision. At this point, some young people choose not to join the church and instead live the rest of their lives in a different community or wider society. If a young man joins a Mennonite church or other less exacting religion, the Amish will often say “he got his hair cut.” If a young person abandons the faith altogether, they say that person “went English.”
Some communities will actively shun (see below) those who decide to leave the community, even those going to a different Amish congregation with different doctrines. Still other communities practice hardly any shunning, keeping close family and social contact with those who leave.
The Ordnung
Everyday life and customs in the Amish community are governed by an unwritten code of behavior called the Ordnung. The Ordnung began as a basic outline of Anabaptist faith in the 16th century, and since then, details and new rules have been added that help define what it means to be Amish. It now governs everything from clothing and child bearing to occupational activities and how the weekend is spent.
The enforcement of the rules depends on the bishop, who is charged with upholding Amish values. An Amish minister has explained of the Ordnung:
A respected Ordnung generates peace, love, contentment, equality, and unity. It creates a desire for togetherness and fellowship. It binds marriages, it strengthens family ties to live together, to work together, to worship together and to commune secluded from the world. (Quoted in Donald B. Kraybill, The Riddle of Amish Culture, 98.)
Shunning
Shunning (Meidung, "avoidance") was the practice that set the Amish apart from the Mennonites several centuries ago, and it remains the fundamental way in which the community deals with disobedient members. Amish differ considerably from community to community in the severeness and strictness of the shunning, but in light of the closeness of the community and separation from the outside world, it is invariably a painful experience for the one shunned.
An Amish person may be shunned for a variety of offenses, ranging from major moral offenses to using improper technology. In accordance with the teachings of Jakob Amman, an Amish person in good standing may buy from, sell to, eat with or sleep with a shunned person, even if the person is one's spouse or close relative.
Electricity
The use of electricity is fervently avoided by Amish, because it is a prime connection to the world that could lead to temptations and worldly amenities detrimental to the community and family life. There are occasional exceptions to this general ban, such as adding electric flashers to buggies when required to drive legally and certain types of farm equipment such as milking equipment and electric fences to contain cattle.
Bottle gas is often used to operate appliances, even barbecue grills, and gas-pressured lanterns and lamps might be used for indoor lighting. Amish buggies may also be equipped with such modern conveniences as heaters, windshield wipers, and upholstered seats. The New Order Amish permit the use of electricity, the owning of cars, and telephones in the home.
Clothing and Personal Appearance
The Amish are especially known for their distinctive self-made clothing, which is essentially that of 17th-century European peasants. The distinctive attire reflects the Amish resistance to change, respect for tradition and interpretation of biblical instructions against conforming to the ways of the world (e.g., Romans 12:2). Its plainness also reflects the great importance of humility in Amish communities.
Men and boys wear broad-brimmed black hats, dark-coloured suits, straight-cut coats without lapels, broadfall pants, suspenders, solid-colored shirts and black socks and shoes. Their shirts may fasten with conventional buttons, but their coats and vests fasten with hooks and eyes. Men must grow beards after they marry but are forbidden to have mustaches.
Amish women and girls wear bonnets, long full dresses with capes over the shoulders, shawls, and black shoes and stockings; their capes and aprons are fastened with straight pins or snaps. Amish women never cut their hair, which is worn in a bun, and they are not allowed to wear jewelry of any kind.
Amish in the World: Buggies, Product Sales and Photography
The Amish do not live in complete isolation and are often seen making regular trips into their local town for groceries. They reject the use of automobiles and use either bicycles or horse-drawn buggies instead. The buggies are box-like and usually black, but some are white, gray, or even yellow, and many groups can be distinguished by their chosen color of buggy. The Amish may also travel, for which they usually prefer to use buses.
The Amish are excellent farmers and most communities are almost entirely self-supporting. However, some have to sell produce and crafts to outsiders in order to make a sufficient living. Amish products are widely prized for their quality and craftsmanship.
The Amish typically accept the photographing of their way of life, but they forbid photos of themselves because they believe such things are graven images in violation of the Second Commandment. (For this same reason, the dolls of young Amish girls are traditionally faceless.) It also comes too close to vanity to allow one's portrait to be taken.
Politics and Government
The Amish are not involved in state or national politics, they do not vote, and they do not serve in the military. They also reject social security and most types of insurance. Instead, they pool their resources to help Amish families in need and will visit doctors, dentists, and opticians when necessary.
Recreation
The Amish may be reserved and humble, but they are not always solemn and enjoy common pastimes and games. Volleyball and softball are popular with many Amish families, but they are played strictly for enjoyment and not in a spirit of competition. Flower gardens, if kept simple, are also permissible. Once the daily chores are finished and the schoolwork completed, Amish families will often read or sing together in the evenings, before turning in early.
Organization
The Amish community is divided into church districts, autonomous congregations of about 75 baptized members. This small number is necessary because congregations meet in member's homes — there are no Amish churches. Each district has a bishop, two to four preachers, and an elder and is very independent; there are no Amish general conferences or cooperative agencies.
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