Anglican/Episcopalian Beliefs and Practices
The Book of Common Prayer
Anglicanism in general allows for significant freedom and diversity within the bounds of scripture, reason and tradition. This has led to considerable variation in doctrine and practice between Anglican churches in different provinces. For example, some Anglican churches ordain women to the priesthood while others do not, and some emphasize Protestant doctrines while others hold more to Catholic teachings.
This diversity has sometimes caused strain with regard to issues of authority and comprehensiveness of the Anglican Communion, which is especially apparent after the recent ordination of a practicing homosexual bishop in North America, which most other Anglican churches do not agree with.
Anglican rituals are expressed primarily in the Book of Common Prayer, a collection of liturgy developed by Thomas Cranmer in the 16 th century and periodically modified since then. However, the Book of Common Prayer is not held to be normative. Much diversity has recently developed in Anglican worship around the world, and many different Prayer Books have been issued. In general, Anglican worship tends to be Catholic or "High Church" in flavor, with prescribed rituals and readings, bishops and priests, vestments, saints' days and elaborately decorated churches.
måndag 7 februari 2011
History of Anglicanism
The churches of the Anglican Communion have their historical roots in the English Reformation, when King Henry VIII (r. 1509-1547) wished to obtain a divorce that the pope would not grant. Through the Act of Supremacy of 1534, the king made himself the "supreme head" of the Church of England in place of the Pope.
After this dramatic move, King Henry dissolved England's monasteries, destroyed Catholic shrines, and ordered the Great Bible (in English) to be placed in all churches. However, Henry allowed few doctrinal changes and very little changed in the religious life of the common English worshipper. Under Henry VIII, and the Church of England remained almost fully Catholic with the exception of loyalty to Rome.
Thomas Cranmer
A power struggle between English Protestants and Catholics ensued during the reigns of Edward VI and Mary I. Under King Edward, Archbishop of Canterbury Thomas Cranmer contributed a great deal to the Protestant movement, including the first two versions of the Book of Common Prayer (1549 and 1552) and the 42 Articles (1553). After the ascension of the Catholic "Bloody Mary" to the throne in 1553, England was restored to Catholicism, much of the reforming work under Kings Henry and Edward was undone, and Thomas Cranmer was burned at the stake.
Queen Elizabeth I
Protestantism finally emerged victorious under Queen Elizabeth I (r. 1558-1603). It was under Elizabeth that "Anglicanism" took shape, established on the notion of a via media between Catholicism and Protestantism (specifically Reformed Protestantism). Elizabeth appointed Protestant bishops, but reintroduced a crucifix in her chapel, tried to insist on traditional clerical vestments, and made other attempts to satisfy conservative opinion. The 42 Articles were reduced to 39 and the Book of Common Prayer was reissued. The 39 Articles and the Book of Common Prayer, which together expressed the faith and practice of the Church of England, were sufficiently vague to allow for a variety of interpretations along the Catholic-Protestant spectrum.
After Elizabeth, Calvinist influences were dominant for a time, but High Churchmen regained control of the Church of England in the Restoration of 1660. In the latter 17th and early 18th centuries, Anglicanism was characterized by its emphases on reason, simple devotional religion and moral living. After about 1690, the controversy quieted down and the Church of England settled into the form that still characterizes it today.
Evangelicalism arose in 18th century in part as a reaction against the lack of spiritual fervor and enthusiasm in the Church. This had a balancing effect on Anglicanism (and there remains a strong evangelical group within the Church of England), but evangelicals also went beyond the bounds of the traditional Anglican outlook and many, like John Wesley's Methodists, broke away from the Church of England.
Another important development in the history of Anglicanism, the Oxford Movement, began in 1833. Also known as the Catholic Revival, this movement sought to restore the sacraments, rituals and outward forms of Catholicism to the Church of England. By the mid-20th century, many of the practices advocated by this group had been incorporated.
Also in the 19th century, the Church of England found room for the new German biblical criticism and liberal theology. Scholarship is still highly regarded in Anglicanism, and Anglican scholars have generally been free to adopt views ranging from conservative to radical while remaining in the Anglican fold.
Anglicanism expanded along with the British Empire, creating a network of autonomous churches that were loyal to the faith and forms of the Church of England. After the American Revolution, Anglicans in the U.S. called themselves Episcopalians (the name reflecting the role of the episcopate, or bishops) to distinguish themselves from the British crown and the Church of England. Today, the Episcopalian Church in the United States and many other Anglican churches in former British colonies are members of the Anglican Communion.
The 21st century has proven to be an important point in history for Anglicanism. The recent ordination of a gay bishop in America and the disapproving reaction from the Communion will have great implications for the question of how much variation can be tolerated within Anglicanism. And, as always, the Archbishop of Canterbury, the bishops and the priests in Anglican churches must decide how to react to the continuing influences of biblical criticism, liberal theology and modern ethical values.
After this dramatic move, King Henry dissolved England's monasteries, destroyed Catholic shrines, and ordered the Great Bible (in English) to be placed in all churches. However, Henry allowed few doctrinal changes and very little changed in the religious life of the common English worshipper. Under Henry VIII, and the Church of England remained almost fully Catholic with the exception of loyalty to Rome.
Thomas Cranmer
A power struggle between English Protestants and Catholics ensued during the reigns of Edward VI and Mary I. Under King Edward, Archbishop of Canterbury Thomas Cranmer contributed a great deal to the Protestant movement, including the first two versions of the Book of Common Prayer (1549 and 1552) and the 42 Articles (1553). After the ascension of the Catholic "Bloody Mary" to the throne in 1553, England was restored to Catholicism, much of the reforming work under Kings Henry and Edward was undone, and Thomas Cranmer was burned at the stake.
Queen Elizabeth I
Protestantism finally emerged victorious under Queen Elizabeth I (r. 1558-1603). It was under Elizabeth that "Anglicanism" took shape, established on the notion of a via media between Catholicism and Protestantism (specifically Reformed Protestantism). Elizabeth appointed Protestant bishops, but reintroduced a crucifix in her chapel, tried to insist on traditional clerical vestments, and made other attempts to satisfy conservative opinion. The 42 Articles were reduced to 39 and the Book of Common Prayer was reissued. The 39 Articles and the Book of Common Prayer, which together expressed the faith and practice of the Church of England, were sufficiently vague to allow for a variety of interpretations along the Catholic-Protestant spectrum.
After Elizabeth, Calvinist influences were dominant for a time, but High Churchmen regained control of the Church of England in the Restoration of 1660. In the latter 17th and early 18th centuries, Anglicanism was characterized by its emphases on reason, simple devotional religion and moral living. After about 1690, the controversy quieted down and the Church of England settled into the form that still characterizes it today.
Evangelicalism arose in 18th century in part as a reaction against the lack of spiritual fervor and enthusiasm in the Church. This had a balancing effect on Anglicanism (and there remains a strong evangelical group within the Church of England), but evangelicals also went beyond the bounds of the traditional Anglican outlook and many, like John Wesley's Methodists, broke away from the Church of England.
Another important development in the history of Anglicanism, the Oxford Movement, began in 1833. Also known as the Catholic Revival, this movement sought to restore the sacraments, rituals and outward forms of Catholicism to the Church of England. By the mid-20th century, many of the practices advocated by this group had been incorporated.
Also in the 19th century, the Church of England found room for the new German biblical criticism and liberal theology. Scholarship is still highly regarded in Anglicanism, and Anglican scholars have generally been free to adopt views ranging from conservative to radical while remaining in the Anglican fold.
Anglicanism expanded along with the British Empire, creating a network of autonomous churches that were loyal to the faith and forms of the Church of England. After the American Revolution, Anglicans in the U.S. called themselves Episcopalians (the name reflecting the role of the episcopate, or bishops) to distinguish themselves from the British crown and the Church of England. Today, the Episcopalian Church in the United States and many other Anglican churches in former British colonies are members of the Anglican Communion.
The 21st century has proven to be an important point in history for Anglicanism. The recent ordination of a gay bishop in America and the disapproving reaction from the Communion will have great implications for the question of how much variation can be tolerated within Anglicanism. And, as always, the Archbishop of Canterbury, the bishops and the priests in Anglican churches must decide how to react to the continuing influences of biblical criticism, liberal theology and modern ethical values.
Anglicanism and Episcopalianism
The Anglican Communion is an organization of autonomous national churches connected with the Church of England, which has its roots in the 16th century Reformation.
Anglicanism or Episcopalianism is the general form of doctrine, worship and structure based on the tradition of the Church of England, which extends beyond membership in the Anglican Communion.
Anglicanism is characterized by a via media (middle way) between Catholicism and Protestantism. Anglicans are not subject to the Pope and are Protestant in most areas of doctrine, but Anglicans also retain many Catholic forms of worship, including a hierarchy based on bishops (which is the meaning of the world "episcopalian").
Anglicanism or Episcopalianism is the general form of doctrine, worship and structure based on the tradition of the Church of England, which extends beyond membership in the Anglican Communion.
Anglicanism is characterized by a via media (middle way) between Catholicism and Protestantism. Anglicans are not subject to the Pope and are Protestant in most areas of doctrine, but Anglicans also retain many Catholic forms of worship, including a hierarchy based on bishops (which is the meaning of the world "episcopalian").
The Amish
The Amish (sometimes called Amish Mennonites) are members of an Anabaptist Christian denomination who are especially known for their separation from society and rejection of most modern technology. The denomination originated in Switzerland, with the strict teachings of Jacob Amman that led to a split from other Mennonites in 1693.
History of the Amish
The Amish are one of several denominations that developed out of the Radical Reformation in 16th-century Europe. The Anabaptists, as the radical reformers came to be called, differed from mainstream Protestants in their rejection of all church authority, belief that a church consists only of baptized believers and rejection of infant baptism. Anabaptist denominations include the Mennonites, Hutterites and the Amish.
The Amish arose from a schism among Swiss Mennonites in 1693. Mennonite leader Jakob Amman (1656-1730) and his followers applied the Mennonite practice of shunning very strictly and condemned other Mennonites for not doing so.
Amish communities sprang up in Switzerland, Alsace, Germany, Russia and Holland, but there are no Amish remaining in Europe today. Many emigrated to North America in the 19th and 20th centuries and those who stayed behind gradually assimilated with Mennonite groups.
Amish began emigrating to North America early in the 18th century, in large part to avoid religious persecution and compulsory military service. They first settled in eastern Pennsylvania, where a large settlement remains today.
In 1850, there was a schism between the traditional Old Order Amish and the "New Order" Amish, who accept social change and technological innovation but retain most other Amish practices.
There are now about 200,000 Old Order Amish living in more than 200 settlements in the United States and Canada; the largest communities are in Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indiana, Iowa, Illinois, and Kansas, and others exist in Wisconsin, Missouri, and Minnesota.
Amish Texts
As conservative Protestants, the Amish value the Bible alone as the source of religious authority. But in most Amish homes a special place is reserved alongside the Bible for the Martyr's Mirror, a book chronicling Amish history and honoring the many Amish, Mennonites, and Anabaptists who died for their faith.
The Budget, established in 1890, is the national newspaper serving the many Amish and Mennonite communities; it is published in Sugarcreek, Ohio.
Distinctive Beliefs of the Amish
Amish religious beliefs are virtually the same as that of the Mennonites and other religious reformers. They believe in the importance of individual Bible study and the necessity of living a life free of sin after adult baptism. The Amish are primarily set apart from other Mennonites in their great emphasis on the values of humility, family, community, and separation from the world.
Two key concepts for understanding Amish practices are their revulsion of Hochmut (pride, arrogance, haughtiness) and the high value they place on Demut (humility) and Gelassenheit (calmness, composure, placidity). This all translates into a reluctance to be forward, self-promoting, or to assert oneself in any way. The willingness to submit to the will of God, as expressed through group norms, is at odds with the individualism that is central to general American culture.
Distinctive Practices of the Amish
Religious Services
As in Mennonite communities, the Amish celebrate Holy Communion twice each year and practice foot washing. Persons are baptized when they are admitted to formal membership in the church, about the age of 17 to 20 years.
Amish religious services are conducted in High German. Pennsylvania Dutch (which is not Dutch but a mixture of High German, various German dialects and English) is spoken at home and in daily discourse. Children learn English at school.
Religious services are held on a rotating basis in family homes and barns. A large wagon, filled with benches for the service and dishes and food for the meal that follows, will often be pulled to the host's property.
The use of musical instruments is not permitted in an Amish church service or at any time, as it is considered wordly and vain. Singing, however, is important to Amish life, whether at work or at play, at home or in church. Selections from the Ausband (the Amish hymnal) are commonly sung. Group singing is always in unison and never harmonized.
Education
Amish children attend one-room schools run by the community and they attend school only through the eighth grade (this was deemed acceptable by a 1972 U.S. Supreme Court ruling). School classes are in English and focus on the basics of reading, writing, and math, along with Amish history, farming techniques and homemaking skills.
Rumspringa
Rumspringa ("running around") is the general Amish term for adolescence and the period leading up to serious courtship during which rules may be relaxed a little. As in non-Amish families, it is understood as a practical matter that there will likely be a certain amount of misbehavior during this period, but it is neither encouraged nor overlooked.
At the end of this period, Amish young adults are expected to find a spouse and be baptized. But in accordance with Anabaptist doctrine, this must be a free and personal decision. At this point, some young people choose not to join the church and instead live the rest of their lives in a different community or wider society. If a young man joins a Mennonite church or other less exacting religion, the Amish will often say “he got his hair cut.” If a young person abandons the faith altogether, they say that person “went English.”
Some communities will actively shun (see below) those who decide to leave the community, even those going to a different Amish congregation with different doctrines. Still other communities practice hardly any shunning, keeping close family and social contact with those who leave.
The Ordnung
Everyday life and customs in the Amish community are governed by an unwritten code of behavior called the Ordnung. The Ordnung began as a basic outline of Anabaptist faith in the 16th century, and since then, details and new rules have been added that help define what it means to be Amish. It now governs everything from clothing and child bearing to occupational activities and how the weekend is spent.
The enforcement of the rules depends on the bishop, who is charged with upholding Amish values. An Amish minister has explained of the Ordnung:
A respected Ordnung generates peace, love, contentment, equality, and unity. It creates a desire for togetherness and fellowship. It binds marriages, it strengthens family ties to live together, to work together, to worship together and to commune secluded from the world. (Quoted in Donald B. Kraybill, The Riddle of Amish Culture, 98.)
Shunning
Shunning (Meidung, "avoidance") was the practice that set the Amish apart from the Mennonites several centuries ago, and it remains the fundamental way in which the community deals with disobedient members. Amish differ considerably from community to community in the severeness and strictness of the shunning, but in light of the closeness of the community and separation from the outside world, it is invariably a painful experience for the one shunned.
An Amish person may be shunned for a variety of offenses, ranging from major moral offenses to using improper technology. In accordance with the teachings of Jakob Amman, an Amish person in good standing may buy from, sell to, eat with or sleep with a shunned person, even if the person is one's spouse or close relative.
Electricity
The use of electricity is fervently avoided by Amish, because it is a prime connection to the world that could lead to temptations and worldly amenities detrimental to the community and family life. There are occasional exceptions to this general ban, such as adding electric flashers to buggies when required to drive legally and certain types of farm equipment such as milking equipment and electric fences to contain cattle.
Bottle gas is often used to operate appliances, even barbecue grills, and gas-pressured lanterns and lamps might be used for indoor lighting. Amish buggies may also be equipped with such modern conveniences as heaters, windshield wipers, and upholstered seats. The New Order Amish permit the use of electricity, the owning of cars, and telephones in the home.
Clothing and Personal Appearance
The Amish are especially known for their distinctive self-made clothing, which is essentially that of 17th-century European peasants. The distinctive attire reflects the Amish resistance to change, respect for tradition and interpretation of biblical instructions against conforming to the ways of the world (e.g., Romans 12:2). Its plainness also reflects the great importance of humility in Amish communities.
Men and boys wear broad-brimmed black hats, dark-coloured suits, straight-cut coats without lapels, broadfall pants, suspenders, solid-colored shirts and black socks and shoes. Their shirts may fasten with conventional buttons, but their coats and vests fasten with hooks and eyes. Men must grow beards after they marry but are forbidden to have mustaches.
Amish women and girls wear bonnets, long full dresses with capes over the shoulders, shawls, and black shoes and stockings; their capes and aprons are fastened with straight pins or snaps. Amish women never cut their hair, which is worn in a bun, and they are not allowed to wear jewelry of any kind.
Amish in the World: Buggies, Product Sales and Photography
The Amish do not live in complete isolation and are often seen making regular trips into their local town for groceries. They reject the use of automobiles and use either bicycles or horse-drawn buggies instead. The buggies are box-like and usually black, but some are white, gray, or even yellow, and many groups can be distinguished by their chosen color of buggy. The Amish may also travel, for which they usually prefer to use buses.
The Amish are excellent farmers and most communities are almost entirely self-supporting. However, some have to sell produce and crafts to outsiders in order to make a sufficient living. Amish products are widely prized for their quality and craftsmanship.
The Amish typically accept the photographing of their way of life, but they forbid photos of themselves because they believe such things are graven images in violation of the Second Commandment. (For this same reason, the dolls of young Amish girls are traditionally faceless.) It also comes too close to vanity to allow one's portrait to be taken.
Politics and Government
The Amish are not involved in state or national politics, they do not vote, and they do not serve in the military. They also reject social security and most types of insurance. Instead, they pool their resources to help Amish families in need and will visit doctors, dentists, and opticians when necessary.
Recreation
The Amish may be reserved and humble, but they are not always solemn and enjoy common pastimes and games. Volleyball and softball are popular with many Amish families, but they are played strictly for enjoyment and not in a spirit of competition. Flower gardens, if kept simple, are also permissible. Once the daily chores are finished and the schoolwork completed, Amish families will often read or sing together in the evenings, before turning in early.
Organization
The Amish community is divided into church districts, autonomous congregations of about 75 baptized members. This small number is necessary because congregations meet in member's homes — there are no Amish churches. Each district has a bishop, two to four preachers, and an elder and is very independent; there are no Amish general conferences or cooperative agencies.
History of the Amish
The Amish are one of several denominations that developed out of the Radical Reformation in 16th-century Europe. The Anabaptists, as the radical reformers came to be called, differed from mainstream Protestants in their rejection of all church authority, belief that a church consists only of baptized believers and rejection of infant baptism. Anabaptist denominations include the Mennonites, Hutterites and the Amish.
The Amish arose from a schism among Swiss Mennonites in 1693. Mennonite leader Jakob Amman (1656-1730) and his followers applied the Mennonite practice of shunning very strictly and condemned other Mennonites for not doing so.
Amish communities sprang up in Switzerland, Alsace, Germany, Russia and Holland, but there are no Amish remaining in Europe today. Many emigrated to North America in the 19th and 20th centuries and those who stayed behind gradually assimilated with Mennonite groups.
Amish began emigrating to North America early in the 18th century, in large part to avoid religious persecution and compulsory military service. They first settled in eastern Pennsylvania, where a large settlement remains today.
In 1850, there was a schism between the traditional Old Order Amish and the "New Order" Amish, who accept social change and technological innovation but retain most other Amish practices.
There are now about 200,000 Old Order Amish living in more than 200 settlements in the United States and Canada; the largest communities are in Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indiana, Iowa, Illinois, and Kansas, and others exist in Wisconsin, Missouri, and Minnesota.
Amish Texts
As conservative Protestants, the Amish value the Bible alone as the source of religious authority. But in most Amish homes a special place is reserved alongside the Bible for the Martyr's Mirror, a book chronicling Amish history and honoring the many Amish, Mennonites, and Anabaptists who died for their faith.
The Budget, established in 1890, is the national newspaper serving the many Amish and Mennonite communities; it is published in Sugarcreek, Ohio.
Distinctive Beliefs of the Amish
Amish religious beliefs are virtually the same as that of the Mennonites and other religious reformers. They believe in the importance of individual Bible study and the necessity of living a life free of sin after adult baptism. The Amish are primarily set apart from other Mennonites in their great emphasis on the values of humility, family, community, and separation from the world.
Two key concepts for understanding Amish practices are their revulsion of Hochmut (pride, arrogance, haughtiness) and the high value they place on Demut (humility) and Gelassenheit (calmness, composure, placidity). This all translates into a reluctance to be forward, self-promoting, or to assert oneself in any way. The willingness to submit to the will of God, as expressed through group norms, is at odds with the individualism that is central to general American culture.
Distinctive Practices of the Amish
Religious Services
As in Mennonite communities, the Amish celebrate Holy Communion twice each year and practice foot washing. Persons are baptized when they are admitted to formal membership in the church, about the age of 17 to 20 years.
Amish religious services are conducted in High German. Pennsylvania Dutch (which is not Dutch but a mixture of High German, various German dialects and English) is spoken at home and in daily discourse. Children learn English at school.
Religious services are held on a rotating basis in family homes and barns. A large wagon, filled with benches for the service and dishes and food for the meal that follows, will often be pulled to the host's property.
The use of musical instruments is not permitted in an Amish church service or at any time, as it is considered wordly and vain. Singing, however, is important to Amish life, whether at work or at play, at home or in church. Selections from the Ausband (the Amish hymnal) are commonly sung. Group singing is always in unison and never harmonized.
Education
Amish children attend one-room schools run by the community and they attend school only through the eighth grade (this was deemed acceptable by a 1972 U.S. Supreme Court ruling). School classes are in English and focus on the basics of reading, writing, and math, along with Amish history, farming techniques and homemaking skills.
Rumspringa
Rumspringa ("running around") is the general Amish term for adolescence and the period leading up to serious courtship during which rules may be relaxed a little. As in non-Amish families, it is understood as a practical matter that there will likely be a certain amount of misbehavior during this period, but it is neither encouraged nor overlooked.
At the end of this period, Amish young adults are expected to find a spouse and be baptized. But in accordance with Anabaptist doctrine, this must be a free and personal decision. At this point, some young people choose not to join the church and instead live the rest of their lives in a different community or wider society. If a young man joins a Mennonite church or other less exacting religion, the Amish will often say “he got his hair cut.” If a young person abandons the faith altogether, they say that person “went English.”
Some communities will actively shun (see below) those who decide to leave the community, even those going to a different Amish congregation with different doctrines. Still other communities practice hardly any shunning, keeping close family and social contact with those who leave.
The Ordnung
Everyday life and customs in the Amish community are governed by an unwritten code of behavior called the Ordnung. The Ordnung began as a basic outline of Anabaptist faith in the 16th century, and since then, details and new rules have been added that help define what it means to be Amish. It now governs everything from clothing and child bearing to occupational activities and how the weekend is spent.
The enforcement of the rules depends on the bishop, who is charged with upholding Amish values. An Amish minister has explained of the Ordnung:
A respected Ordnung generates peace, love, contentment, equality, and unity. It creates a desire for togetherness and fellowship. It binds marriages, it strengthens family ties to live together, to work together, to worship together and to commune secluded from the world. (Quoted in Donald B. Kraybill, The Riddle of Amish Culture, 98.)
Shunning
Shunning (Meidung, "avoidance") was the practice that set the Amish apart from the Mennonites several centuries ago, and it remains the fundamental way in which the community deals with disobedient members. Amish differ considerably from community to community in the severeness and strictness of the shunning, but in light of the closeness of the community and separation from the outside world, it is invariably a painful experience for the one shunned.
An Amish person may be shunned for a variety of offenses, ranging from major moral offenses to using improper technology. In accordance with the teachings of Jakob Amman, an Amish person in good standing may buy from, sell to, eat with or sleep with a shunned person, even if the person is one's spouse or close relative.
Electricity
The use of electricity is fervently avoided by Amish, because it is a prime connection to the world that could lead to temptations and worldly amenities detrimental to the community and family life. There are occasional exceptions to this general ban, such as adding electric flashers to buggies when required to drive legally and certain types of farm equipment such as milking equipment and electric fences to contain cattle.
Bottle gas is often used to operate appliances, even barbecue grills, and gas-pressured lanterns and lamps might be used for indoor lighting. Amish buggies may also be equipped with such modern conveniences as heaters, windshield wipers, and upholstered seats. The New Order Amish permit the use of electricity, the owning of cars, and telephones in the home.
Clothing and Personal Appearance
The Amish are especially known for their distinctive self-made clothing, which is essentially that of 17th-century European peasants. The distinctive attire reflects the Amish resistance to change, respect for tradition and interpretation of biblical instructions against conforming to the ways of the world (e.g., Romans 12:2). Its plainness also reflects the great importance of humility in Amish communities.
Men and boys wear broad-brimmed black hats, dark-coloured suits, straight-cut coats without lapels, broadfall pants, suspenders, solid-colored shirts and black socks and shoes. Their shirts may fasten with conventional buttons, but their coats and vests fasten with hooks and eyes. Men must grow beards after they marry but are forbidden to have mustaches.
Amish women and girls wear bonnets, long full dresses with capes over the shoulders, shawls, and black shoes and stockings; their capes and aprons are fastened with straight pins or snaps. Amish women never cut their hair, which is worn in a bun, and they are not allowed to wear jewelry of any kind.
Amish in the World: Buggies, Product Sales and Photography
The Amish do not live in complete isolation and are often seen making regular trips into their local town for groceries. They reject the use of automobiles and use either bicycles or horse-drawn buggies instead. The buggies are box-like and usually black, but some are white, gray, or even yellow, and many groups can be distinguished by their chosen color of buggy. The Amish may also travel, for which they usually prefer to use buses.
The Amish are excellent farmers and most communities are almost entirely self-supporting. However, some have to sell produce and crafts to outsiders in order to make a sufficient living. Amish products are widely prized for their quality and craftsmanship.
The Amish typically accept the photographing of their way of life, but they forbid photos of themselves because they believe such things are graven images in violation of the Second Commandment. (For this same reason, the dolls of young Amish girls are traditionally faceless.) It also comes too close to vanity to allow one's portrait to be taken.
Politics and Government
The Amish are not involved in state or national politics, they do not vote, and they do not serve in the military. They also reject social security and most types of insurance. Instead, they pool their resources to help Amish families in need and will visit doctors, dentists, and opticians when necessary.
Recreation
The Amish may be reserved and humble, but they are not always solemn and enjoy common pastimes and games. Volleyball and softball are popular with many Amish families, but they are played strictly for enjoyment and not in a spirit of competition. Flower gardens, if kept simple, are also permissible. Once the daily chores are finished and the schoolwork completed, Amish families will often read or sing together in the evenings, before turning in early.
Organization
The Amish community is divided into church districts, autonomous congregations of about 75 baptized members. This small number is necessary because congregations meet in member's homes — there are no Amish churches. Each district has a bishop, two to four preachers, and an elder and is very independent; there are no Amish general conferences or cooperative agencies.
A Brief History of Christian Denominations
For the first thousand years of Christian history, there were no "denominations" within the Christian church as there are today.
Various offshoot groups certainly existed, but they were considered "heresies" and not part of the Christian church. Most were small and, until the 16th century, were never very influential. From the beginnings of Christianity through the Middle Ages, there was only one the catholic ("universal") church. Basically, if you did not belong to the Church, you were not considered a Christian.
The first division within Christendom came in 1054 with the "Great Schism" between the Western Church and the Eastern Church. (More on this in the article on Orthodox Christianity.) From that point forward, there were two large branches of Christianity, which came to be known as the Catholic Church (in the West) and the Orthodox Church (in the East).
The next major division occurred in the 16th century with the Protestant Reformation. The Reformation was famously sparked when Martin Luther posted his 95 Theses in 1517, but "Protestantism" as a movement officially began in 1529. That year marked the publication of the Protestation, directed at the imperial government. The authors, German princes who wanted the freedom to choose the faith of their territory, protested that "in matters which concern God's honor and salvation and the eternal life of our souls, everyone must stand and give account before God for himself." {1}
With its emphasis on individual interpretation of scripture and a measure of religious freedom, the Reformation marked not only a break between Protestantism and Catholicism, but the beginning of denominationalism as we know it today. This historical perspective is perhaps the best way to make sense of the initially astounding variety of Christian denominations.
Those who remained within the fold of Roman Catholicism argued that central regulation of doctrine is necessary to prevent confusion and division within the church and corruption of its beliefs. Those who broke from the church, on the other hand, insisted that it was precisely this policy of control that had already led to corruption of the true faith. They demanded that believers be allowed to read the Scriptures for themselves (it was previously available only in Latin) and act in accordance with their conscience. This issue of religious authority continues to be a fundamental difference in perspective between Catholic and Orthodox Christians on one hand, and Protestant Christians on the other.
As the Reformation developed in Germany, various groups in other parts of Europe also began to break away from the Catholic Church. Reformed Christianity developed in Switzerland based on the teachings of Ulrich Zwingli and John Calvin. When it spread to Scotland under John Knox, the Reformed faith became Presbyterianism. Switzerland was also the birthplace of the Anabaptists, spiritual ancestors of today's Amish, Mennonites, Quakers, and Baptists. Anglicanism was established in 1534 when England's King Henry VIII broke from the authority of the Pope, and became Episcopalianism in America. Methodism, based on the teachings of John Wesley, also has its roots in Anglicanism.
The articles that follow provide an overview of each of the major Christian denominations that exist today. Each article outlines the history and distinctive beliefs and practices of a particular group and provides links to sites of interest and suggested reading. A discussion of the Christian ecumenical movement (which seeks to create unity among the various denominations) will be also be added at a future date.
Various offshoot groups certainly existed, but they were considered "heresies" and not part of the Christian church. Most were small and, until the 16th century, were never very influential. From the beginnings of Christianity through the Middle Ages, there was only one the catholic ("universal") church. Basically, if you did not belong to the Church, you were not considered a Christian.
The first division within Christendom came in 1054 with the "Great Schism" between the Western Church and the Eastern Church. (More on this in the article on Orthodox Christianity.) From that point forward, there were two large branches of Christianity, which came to be known as the Catholic Church (in the West) and the Orthodox Church (in the East).
The next major division occurred in the 16th century with the Protestant Reformation. The Reformation was famously sparked when Martin Luther posted his 95 Theses in 1517, but "Protestantism" as a movement officially began in 1529. That year marked the publication of the Protestation, directed at the imperial government. The authors, German princes who wanted the freedom to choose the faith of their territory, protested that "in matters which concern God's honor and salvation and the eternal life of our souls, everyone must stand and give account before God for himself." {1}
With its emphasis on individual interpretation of scripture and a measure of religious freedom, the Reformation marked not only a break between Protestantism and Catholicism, but the beginning of denominationalism as we know it today. This historical perspective is perhaps the best way to make sense of the initially astounding variety of Christian denominations.
Those who remained within the fold of Roman Catholicism argued that central regulation of doctrine is necessary to prevent confusion and division within the church and corruption of its beliefs. Those who broke from the church, on the other hand, insisted that it was precisely this policy of control that had already led to corruption of the true faith. They demanded that believers be allowed to read the Scriptures for themselves (it was previously available only in Latin) and act in accordance with their conscience. This issue of religious authority continues to be a fundamental difference in perspective between Catholic and Orthodox Christians on one hand, and Protestant Christians on the other.
As the Reformation developed in Germany, various groups in other parts of Europe also began to break away from the Catholic Church. Reformed Christianity developed in Switzerland based on the teachings of Ulrich Zwingli and John Calvin. When it spread to Scotland under John Knox, the Reformed faith became Presbyterianism. Switzerland was also the birthplace of the Anabaptists, spiritual ancestors of today's Amish, Mennonites, Quakers, and Baptists. Anglicanism was established in 1534 when England's King Henry VIII broke from the authority of the Pope, and became Episcopalianism in America. Methodism, based on the teachings of John Wesley, also has its roots in Anglicanism.
The articles that follow provide an overview of each of the major Christian denominations that exist today. Each article outlines the history and distinctive beliefs and practices of a particular group and provides links to sites of interest and suggested reading. A discussion of the Christian ecumenical movement (which seeks to create unity among the various denominations) will be also be added at a future date.
torsdag 6 januari 2011
The New Perspective on Paul
The New Perspective on Paul is a way of reinterpreting the Apostle's New Testament letters, which lifts them out of the "Old Perspective" paradigm, as characterized by Protestant theology, and relocates them into a different theological framework.
Leaders of the New Perspective include New Testament scholars N.T. Wright (1948-present; former bishop of Durham) and James D.G. Dunn (1939-present; former professor of theology at the University of Durham). The work of Wright and Dunn build upon the research of E.P. Sanders (1935-present; professor of religion at Duke University). Although Wright, Dunn, and Sanders, are the most well-known scholars associated with the New Perspective, there are many others.
While the subject is often called "The New Perspective on Paul" (singular), it's more precise to speak of "perspectives" (plural), because there is not uniform agreement among those who challenge the Old Perspective. New Perspective scholars disagree with each other just as often as they do with Old Perspective scholars.
Also noteworthy is that New Perspectivism doesn't question other tenets of orthodox Christianity such as the person of Christ or the Holy Spirit. Its proposed corrections are limited to the meaning of certain Pauline teachings, which have implications for other categories of biblical theology.
Many critics of the New Perspective come from the Reformed wing of Protestant Christianity including D.A. Carson (1946-present, scholar and research professor at Trinity Evangelical Divinity School), John Piper (1946-present, theologian and pastor), and Ligon Duncan (1960-present, Presbyterian scholar and pastor).
Most critics don't challenge all aspects of the New Perspective and even express gratitude for certain contributions New Perspective scholars have made to biblical studies. Examples include the Old Perspective scholar Simon Gathercole (lecturer in New Testament studies at Cambridge University) - who studied under Dunn - who is appreciative of how the New Perspective underscores God's worldwide purpose in Christ given that Jews and Gentiles are justified in the same way. Another example of gratitude is Thomas Schreiner (1954-present, professor of New Testament interpretation at Southern Baptist Theological Seminary) who is thankful for, among other things, Wright's conservative work on the historical Jesus.
The Background
While there have been New Testament scholars prior to the twentieth century who questioned Protestant interpretations of Pauline literature, two twentieth-century books served as a catalyst for New Perspective scholars.
Krister Stendahl's 1960 essay, "The Apostle Paul and the Introspective Conscience of the West" (first published in Swedish), was translated into English and appeared in the 1963 book, Paul Among Jews and Gentiles. In the essay, Stendahl challenged the Reformation's understanding of the doctrine of justification by faith alone, positing that the Pauline doctrine of salvation included a works component. As a result, New Perspective theologians don't believe that Paul argues against works in general as a necessary part of salvation, but only certain works.
Then Sanders' 1977 book, Paul and Palestinian Judaism, led some New Testament scholars to amend their understanding of Pauline thought in ways previously unconsidered. In the book, Sanders argues that first-century Judaism was not a works-based salvation like Protestantism teaches. On the contrary, first-century Judaism had a Pauline understanding of grace, a fact misunderstood by Reformation theologians, that conjoined with works.
Dunn coined the phrase "The New Perspective on Paul" in a 1982 lecture he delivered on the subject.
Many Old Perspective scholars use a summary description articulated by Douglas Moo (1950-present, professor of New Testament at Wheaton College) in his criticism of Wright's New Perspective arguments, as a way to summarize the methodological differences between the camps:
"Wright backgrounds what the New Testament foregrounds,
and foregrounds what the New Testament backgrounds."
In other words, the Old Perspective accuses the New Perspective of promoting what Paul makes secondary and demoting what he makes primary. For example, the New Perspective defines justification as being united as Jews and Gentiles under the new covenant in Christ. The Old Perspective contends that ethnic inclusion is a result of justification, not its means. Justification, according to Protestant theology, is the process by which God enables a sinner to come into a right relationship with Him through Christ.
The Issues
There are multiple points raised by New Perspective scholars including, but not limited to, the following:
Imputation or Inclusion
Summary: Certain New Perspective scholars contend that the Pauline term "justification" is the result of a sinner being made right with God and refers to their inclusion into God's covenant community. The Old Perspective contends it refers to the process by which a sinner is made right with God, which includes the transfer, or"imputation," of Christ's righteousness to the individual.
The New Perspective: Wright posits that the Pauline term "justification" isn't the means by which a person is made right with God, but a sign that they already are. "Justification," he writes, "is the doctrine which insists that all those who have this faith belong as full members of this family, on this basis and no other." Wright elaborates,
'Justification’ in the first century was not about how someone might establish a relationship with God. It was about God’s eschatological definition, both future and present, of who was, in fact, a member of his people. In Sanders’ terms, it was not so much about ‘getting in,’ or indeed about ‘staying in,’ as about ‘how you could tell who was in.’ In standard Christian theological language, it wasn’t so much about soteriology as about ecclesiology; not so much about salvation as about the church.
Justification, Wright argues, is the declaration of being in right relationship with God.
The Old Perspective: Old Perspective theologians believe the Pauline word "justification" refers to the means by which sinners are made right with God, as opposed to being merely being an announcement of a person's inclusion into the people of God. Wright rejects the idea that God justifies the sinner through transferring, or "imputing," Christ's righteousness to them, but that the sinner is just declared righteous as a covenant member.
One critic of the New Perspective contrasts Paul and Wright with the following table:
Romans 4:5
Paul "faith is reckoned as righteousness" (KJV)
N.T. Wright faith is a badge of covenant membership
Gathercole elaborates,
At its core, the doctrine of justification says that sinners can be miraculously reckoned righteous before God. This happens for all who believe and has nothing to do with observance of the law, which for sinners is impossible. With this foundation in place, we can move on to see how Paul uses the doctrine of justification by faith. The new perspective rightly observes that Paul uses justification to argue that Gentile Christians need not take on the yoke of the law (Galatians) and that Jewish Christians and Gentile Christians should live together in harmony (Romans 14-15). While we must not neglect these demands, we should not allow the tail to wag the dog.
Grace Alone or Grace and Works
Summary: The controversy over this matter centers upon the Pauline phrases "works" and "works of the law." Some New Perspective scholars, like Sanders and Dunn, reject the notion that Paul's railing against "works" was in relation to earning God's favor, as Protestant theology contends. Rather, "works" refers to what Dunn calls "badges" or "boundary markers," like circumcision, of the covenant community, which included Jews and Gentiles.
The New Perspective: The New Testament teaching on grace is a component to New Perspective scholarship that steps from, what could be called, New Perspectives on Judaism, which are subsequently applied to Pauline teachings. Leading New Perspective scholars, such as Sanders and Wright, contend that first-century Judaism was actually a religion of grace in Paul's day, not a religion of works like is traditionally understood in Protestant circles.
In particular, Sanders argues that Paul's emphasis on grace was in alignment with Judaism's teaching on the subject not in contrast to it. Wright agrees with Sanders in that he says readers misjudge first-century Judaism if they believe it was a works-based religion void of the component of grace.
New Perspective scholars further postulate that after his conversion, Paul wasn't fighting legalism as Luther taught, but that he was attempting to gather both Jew and Gentile inside the Abrahamic Covenant (see Genesis 12:1-3). When Paul criticized the Jews for following the "works" of the law, New Perspective scholars contend that he was arguing against national "boundary markers," like circumcision, which separated them from Gentiles, thereby working against the inclusive nature of the new covenant in Christ.
Paul, then, was not arguing against works in general as a component to salvation. He was emphasizing doing away with the specific works that disunited Jews and Gentiles.
Sanders coined the phrase "covenant nomism" (nomism is Greek for "law") to describe how first-century Jews approached the Law. Covenant nomism is that which Paul sought to correct, according to the New Perspective because "there is no Greek or Jew, circumcised or uncircumcised, barbarian, Scythian, slave or free, but Christ is all, and is in all" (Colossians 3:11). If first-century Judaism's emphasis on obedience wasn't in relation to works-based righteousness, then works-based righteousness wasn't what Paul was arguing against in his epistles.
Therefore, New Perspectivism calls into question hallmark doctrines of the Protestant Reformation such as grace alone and faith alone, which are doctrinal responses to works-based religious systems.
The Old Perspective: Old Perspective scholars contend that Paul teaches that salvation requires divine intervention, a fact which first-century Judaism largely neglected. An example that Old Perspective scholars cite of Judaism's collective approach to salvation through works is from 2 Baruch (circa late first-century to early second-century):
"Miracles, however, will appear at their own time to those who are saved by their works."
While the New Perspective holds to the forgiveness of sin through the blood of Christ, complimented by certain works, the Old Perspective rejects the idea that human effort is in any way necessary for forgiveness.
It should also be noted that Reformation theology doesn't deny the importance of good works, but it argues that obedience is an effect of salvation, not the means of it.
The Results of the Discussion
While discussions on the Old and New Perspective are primarily taking place in academic circles, they have reached the church. One Protestant denomination even instructed their pastors that if they supported the New Perspective on Paul, to report to the leadership, since it's not in harmony with their doctrinal beliefs.
Catholic and Orthodox Christianity has largely been supportive of the New Perspective since it aligns closely with their understanding of Paul. Taylor Marshall, a former Protestant, turned Catholic, writes,
N.T. Wright is a good enough biblical theologian to realize that Paul didn’t teach personal salvation by way of an imputation of an alien righteousness. That’s why the Anglican bishop has received so much attention – he’s a Protestant writing like a Catholic.
Some earnest Protestants are now scratching their heads and saying to themselves: “You know, everything we’ve always assumed that Paul taught isn’t actually articulated by Paul. Maybe it’s time to rethink the entire systematic theology that we (Protestants) erected in the 16th-17th century.”
If you buy into Wright’s covenantal realism, then you’ve already taken three steps toward the Catholic Church. Keep following the trail an[d] you’ll be Catholic. Salvation is sacramental, transformational, communal, and eschatological. Sound good? You’ve just assented to the Catholic Council of Trent.
It’s almost as if Wright dug deeply into Paul’s writings until finally he came to a door. When he opened the door, to everyone’s surprise, he found that he was on the other side of Wittenburg’s door.
Some advocates of the Old Perspective have stated that the New Perspective is causing some believers to leave their Protestant churches to become Catholic. At the 2010 annual meeting of Evangelical Theological Society, the topic of which was justification and the New Perspective, Wright disputed those reports.
Leaders of the New Perspective include New Testament scholars N.T. Wright (1948-present; former bishop of Durham) and James D.G. Dunn (1939-present; former professor of theology at the University of Durham). The work of Wright and Dunn build upon the research of E.P. Sanders (1935-present; professor of religion at Duke University). Although Wright, Dunn, and Sanders, are the most well-known scholars associated with the New Perspective, there are many others.
While the subject is often called "The New Perspective on Paul" (singular), it's more precise to speak of "perspectives" (plural), because there is not uniform agreement among those who challenge the Old Perspective. New Perspective scholars disagree with each other just as often as they do with Old Perspective scholars.
Also noteworthy is that New Perspectivism doesn't question other tenets of orthodox Christianity such as the person of Christ or the Holy Spirit. Its proposed corrections are limited to the meaning of certain Pauline teachings, which have implications for other categories of biblical theology.
Many critics of the New Perspective come from the Reformed wing of Protestant Christianity including D.A. Carson (1946-present, scholar and research professor at Trinity Evangelical Divinity School), John Piper (1946-present, theologian and pastor), and Ligon Duncan (1960-present, Presbyterian scholar and pastor).
Most critics don't challenge all aspects of the New Perspective and even express gratitude for certain contributions New Perspective scholars have made to biblical studies. Examples include the Old Perspective scholar Simon Gathercole (lecturer in New Testament studies at Cambridge University) - who studied under Dunn - who is appreciative of how the New Perspective underscores God's worldwide purpose in Christ given that Jews and Gentiles are justified in the same way. Another example of gratitude is Thomas Schreiner (1954-present, professor of New Testament interpretation at Southern Baptist Theological Seminary) who is thankful for, among other things, Wright's conservative work on the historical Jesus.
The Background
While there have been New Testament scholars prior to the twentieth century who questioned Protestant interpretations of Pauline literature, two twentieth-century books served as a catalyst for New Perspective scholars.
Krister Stendahl's 1960 essay, "The Apostle Paul and the Introspective Conscience of the West" (first published in Swedish), was translated into English and appeared in the 1963 book, Paul Among Jews and Gentiles. In the essay, Stendahl challenged the Reformation's understanding of the doctrine of justification by faith alone, positing that the Pauline doctrine of salvation included a works component. As a result, New Perspective theologians don't believe that Paul argues against works in general as a necessary part of salvation, but only certain works.
Then Sanders' 1977 book, Paul and Palestinian Judaism, led some New Testament scholars to amend their understanding of Pauline thought in ways previously unconsidered. In the book, Sanders argues that first-century Judaism was not a works-based salvation like Protestantism teaches. On the contrary, first-century Judaism had a Pauline understanding of grace, a fact misunderstood by Reformation theologians, that conjoined with works.
Dunn coined the phrase "The New Perspective on Paul" in a 1982 lecture he delivered on the subject.
Many Old Perspective scholars use a summary description articulated by Douglas Moo (1950-present, professor of New Testament at Wheaton College) in his criticism of Wright's New Perspective arguments, as a way to summarize the methodological differences between the camps:
"Wright backgrounds what the New Testament foregrounds,
and foregrounds what the New Testament backgrounds."
In other words, the Old Perspective accuses the New Perspective of promoting what Paul makes secondary and demoting what he makes primary. For example, the New Perspective defines justification as being united as Jews and Gentiles under the new covenant in Christ. The Old Perspective contends that ethnic inclusion is a result of justification, not its means. Justification, according to Protestant theology, is the process by which God enables a sinner to come into a right relationship with Him through Christ.
The Issues
There are multiple points raised by New Perspective scholars including, but not limited to, the following:
Imputation or Inclusion
Summary: Certain New Perspective scholars contend that the Pauline term "justification" is the result of a sinner being made right with God and refers to their inclusion into God's covenant community. The Old Perspective contends it refers to the process by which a sinner is made right with God, which includes the transfer, or"imputation," of Christ's righteousness to the individual.
The New Perspective: Wright posits that the Pauline term "justification" isn't the means by which a person is made right with God, but a sign that they already are. "Justification," he writes, "is the doctrine which insists that all those who have this faith belong as full members of this family, on this basis and no other." Wright elaborates,
'Justification’ in the first century was not about how someone might establish a relationship with God. It was about God’s eschatological definition, both future and present, of who was, in fact, a member of his people. In Sanders’ terms, it was not so much about ‘getting in,’ or indeed about ‘staying in,’ as about ‘how you could tell who was in.’ In standard Christian theological language, it wasn’t so much about soteriology as about ecclesiology; not so much about salvation as about the church.
Justification, Wright argues, is the declaration of being in right relationship with God.
The Old Perspective: Old Perspective theologians believe the Pauline word "justification" refers to the means by which sinners are made right with God, as opposed to being merely being an announcement of a person's inclusion into the people of God. Wright rejects the idea that God justifies the sinner through transferring, or "imputing," Christ's righteousness to them, but that the sinner is just declared righteous as a covenant member.
One critic of the New Perspective contrasts Paul and Wright with the following table:
Romans 4:5
Paul "faith is reckoned as righteousness" (KJV)
N.T. Wright faith is a badge of covenant membership
Gathercole elaborates,
At its core, the doctrine of justification says that sinners can be miraculously reckoned righteous before God. This happens for all who believe and has nothing to do with observance of the law, which for sinners is impossible. With this foundation in place, we can move on to see how Paul uses the doctrine of justification by faith. The new perspective rightly observes that Paul uses justification to argue that Gentile Christians need not take on the yoke of the law (Galatians) and that Jewish Christians and Gentile Christians should live together in harmony (Romans 14-15). While we must not neglect these demands, we should not allow the tail to wag the dog.
Grace Alone or Grace and Works
Summary: The controversy over this matter centers upon the Pauline phrases "works" and "works of the law." Some New Perspective scholars, like Sanders and Dunn, reject the notion that Paul's railing against "works" was in relation to earning God's favor, as Protestant theology contends. Rather, "works" refers to what Dunn calls "badges" or "boundary markers," like circumcision, of the covenant community, which included Jews and Gentiles.
The New Perspective: The New Testament teaching on grace is a component to New Perspective scholarship that steps from, what could be called, New Perspectives on Judaism, which are subsequently applied to Pauline teachings. Leading New Perspective scholars, such as Sanders and Wright, contend that first-century Judaism was actually a religion of grace in Paul's day, not a religion of works like is traditionally understood in Protestant circles.
In particular, Sanders argues that Paul's emphasis on grace was in alignment with Judaism's teaching on the subject not in contrast to it. Wright agrees with Sanders in that he says readers misjudge first-century Judaism if they believe it was a works-based religion void of the component of grace.
New Perspective scholars further postulate that after his conversion, Paul wasn't fighting legalism as Luther taught, but that he was attempting to gather both Jew and Gentile inside the Abrahamic Covenant (see Genesis 12:1-3). When Paul criticized the Jews for following the "works" of the law, New Perspective scholars contend that he was arguing against national "boundary markers," like circumcision, which separated them from Gentiles, thereby working against the inclusive nature of the new covenant in Christ.
Paul, then, was not arguing against works in general as a component to salvation. He was emphasizing doing away with the specific works that disunited Jews and Gentiles.
Sanders coined the phrase "covenant nomism" (nomism is Greek for "law") to describe how first-century Jews approached the Law. Covenant nomism is that which Paul sought to correct, according to the New Perspective because "there is no Greek or Jew, circumcised or uncircumcised, barbarian, Scythian, slave or free, but Christ is all, and is in all" (Colossians 3:11). If first-century Judaism's emphasis on obedience wasn't in relation to works-based righteousness, then works-based righteousness wasn't what Paul was arguing against in his epistles.
Therefore, New Perspectivism calls into question hallmark doctrines of the Protestant Reformation such as grace alone and faith alone, which are doctrinal responses to works-based religious systems.
The Old Perspective: Old Perspective scholars contend that Paul teaches that salvation requires divine intervention, a fact which first-century Judaism largely neglected. An example that Old Perspective scholars cite of Judaism's collective approach to salvation through works is from 2 Baruch (circa late first-century to early second-century):
"Miracles, however, will appear at their own time to those who are saved by their works."
While the New Perspective holds to the forgiveness of sin through the blood of Christ, complimented by certain works, the Old Perspective rejects the idea that human effort is in any way necessary for forgiveness.
It should also be noted that Reformation theology doesn't deny the importance of good works, but it argues that obedience is an effect of salvation, not the means of it.
The Results of the Discussion
While discussions on the Old and New Perspective are primarily taking place in academic circles, they have reached the church. One Protestant denomination even instructed their pastors that if they supported the New Perspective on Paul, to report to the leadership, since it's not in harmony with their doctrinal beliefs.
Catholic and Orthodox Christianity has largely been supportive of the New Perspective since it aligns closely with their understanding of Paul. Taylor Marshall, a former Protestant, turned Catholic, writes,
N.T. Wright is a good enough biblical theologian to realize that Paul didn’t teach personal salvation by way of an imputation of an alien righteousness. That’s why the Anglican bishop has received so much attention – he’s a Protestant writing like a Catholic.
Some earnest Protestants are now scratching their heads and saying to themselves: “You know, everything we’ve always assumed that Paul taught isn’t actually articulated by Paul. Maybe it’s time to rethink the entire systematic theology that we (Protestants) erected in the 16th-17th century.”
If you buy into Wright’s covenantal realism, then you’ve already taken three steps toward the Catholic Church. Keep following the trail an[d] you’ll be Catholic. Salvation is sacramental, transformational, communal, and eschatological. Sound good? You’ve just assented to the Catholic Council of Trent.
It’s almost as if Wright dug deeply into Paul’s writings until finally he came to a door. When he opened the door, to everyone’s surprise, he found that he was on the other side of Wittenburg’s door.
Some advocates of the Old Perspective have stated that the New Perspective is causing some believers to leave their Protestant churches to become Catholic. At the 2010 annual meeting of Evangelical Theological Society, the topic of which was justification and the New Perspective, Wright disputed those reports.
Stigmata
Padre Pio showing his stigmataIn Galatians 6:17, the Apostle Paul writes, "I bear on my body the marks of the Lord Jesus" (KJV). The Greek word translated "marks" is stigmata. ("Stigmata" is plural; "stigma" is singular.) While most Bible scholars confess that they don't know the exact physical phenomena Paul was referring to, in the last 500 years the term "stigmata" refers to when a person allegedly possesses marks on his or her body, which correspond to areas where Christ's body was afflicted when he was crucified. Some recipients have reported pain with stigmata, while others haven't. The marks may be visible or invisible.
Reported cases of stigmata include people suffering from the five "Holy Wounds"; that is, one wound on each wrist or hand, one wound on each foot, and one wound on the side of the torso analogous of where Christ was pierced with a spear. Other signs of stigmata include bleeding from the forehead, analogous of Christ's crown of thorns, and sweating blood, analogous of Christ's agony in the Garden Gethsemane.
St. Francis of Assisi
St. Francis (1181-1226) was the first recorded extrabiblical case of stigmata in history. Two years before his death, St. Francis was praying during a 40-day fast when he saw a vision of an angel on a cross, who gave him the five wounds of Christ. Prior to receiving the marks, St. Francis is said to have prayed for such a sign.
"In that hour which precedes sunrise, kneeling before his hut, Francis prayed, his face turned toward the east. 'O Lord,' he pleaded, 'I beg of You two graces before I die - to experience in myself in all possible fullness the pains of Your cruel Passion, and to feel for You the same love that made You sacrifice Yourself for us.'" (Englebert)
No one else saw the angel, but several people saw, and tended to, the wounds.
"However, as the Stigmata never disappeared, a number of persons were able to see them. Among them were Brother Leo, whom Francis took as his nurse and who regularly bathed the oozing wound in his side; Brother Rufino and several others who gave sworn testimony about them; and all present at the death of the Saint or who were able to venerate him in his coffin, especially Brother Jacopa and her sons, and Sister Claire and her daughters. In addition, Pope Alexander IV, who in a sermon heard by St. Bonaventure, averred that while Francis was still alive he had seen the miraculous marks with his own eyes." (Englebert)
Click here for the Religion Facts biography of St. Francis.
Pio of Pietrelcina
Pio of Pietrelcina (1887-1968), or "Padre Pio," a Catholic priest from Italy, claims to have received the stigmata in the form of unexplainable physical wounds. In 1911, Pio wrote a letter to his spiritual advisor and said,
"Then last night something happened which I can neither explain nor understand. In the middle of the palms of my hands a red mark appeared, about the size of a penny, accompanied by acute pain in the middle of the red marks. The pain was more pronounced in the middle of the left hand, so much so that I can still feel it. Also under my feet I can feel some pain."
The bloody marks, which were said to have smelled like flowers and perfume, were tended to by doctors, including the personal physician of Pope Benedict XV. The wounds were never infected, lacked the accumulation of fluid in the surrounding tissue, and x-rays taken in 1954, showed no physical abnormalities in Pio's bone structure.
Despite allegations of faking his stigmata, the canonized Pio in 2002 under Pope John Paul II.
Other Stigmatics
The following chart summarizes other notable cases of stigmata in history.
Lived / Died
Ethnicity
Church Date of Stigmata Known For
Saint Catherine of Sienna 1347-1380 Italian Roman Catholic Unknown patron saint of Italy along with St. Francis
Rita of Cascia 1381-1457 Italian Roman Catholic Unknown wound on forehead
Lucia Brocadelli 1476-1544 Italian Roman Catholic February 25, 1496 often in a state of spiritual ecstacy
St. John of God 1495-1550 Portuguese Roman Catholic Unknown patron saint of hospitals, firefighters, alcoholics
Saint Catherine of Ricci 1522-1590 Italian Roman Catholic Unknown wore an iron chain around her neck
Marie of the Incarnation 1566-1618 French Roman Catholic Unknown St. Teresa of Avila appeared to her as an apparition
St. Veronica Giuliani 1660-1727 Italian Roman Catholic 1694 had impression of crown of thorns on her head
Blessed Anne Catherine Emmerich 1774-1824 German Roman Catholic 1813 three physicians were convinced of the genuineness of the marks
St. Gemma Galgani 1878-1903 Italian Roman Catholic June 8, 1899 claims to have spoken with Jesus, Mary, and other saints
Therese Neumann 1898-1962 German Roman Catholic March-November, 1926 is said to have only consumed the Holy Eucharist from 1922-1962
Mary Faustina Kowalska 1905-1938 Polish Roman Catholic Unknown had visions of Jesus in purgatory
Zlatko Sudac 1971-present Croatian Roman Catholic Unknown bears cross on forehead
Reported cases of stigmata include people suffering from the five "Holy Wounds"; that is, one wound on each wrist or hand, one wound on each foot, and one wound on the side of the torso analogous of where Christ was pierced with a spear. Other signs of stigmata include bleeding from the forehead, analogous of Christ's crown of thorns, and sweating blood, analogous of Christ's agony in the Garden Gethsemane.
St. Francis of Assisi
St. Francis (1181-1226) was the first recorded extrabiblical case of stigmata in history. Two years before his death, St. Francis was praying during a 40-day fast when he saw a vision of an angel on a cross, who gave him the five wounds of Christ. Prior to receiving the marks, St. Francis is said to have prayed for such a sign.
"In that hour which precedes sunrise, kneeling before his hut, Francis prayed, his face turned toward the east. 'O Lord,' he pleaded, 'I beg of You two graces before I die - to experience in myself in all possible fullness the pains of Your cruel Passion, and to feel for You the same love that made You sacrifice Yourself for us.'" (Englebert)
No one else saw the angel, but several people saw, and tended to, the wounds.
"However, as the Stigmata never disappeared, a number of persons were able to see them. Among them were Brother Leo, whom Francis took as his nurse and who regularly bathed the oozing wound in his side; Brother Rufino and several others who gave sworn testimony about them; and all present at the death of the Saint or who were able to venerate him in his coffin, especially Brother Jacopa and her sons, and Sister Claire and her daughters. In addition, Pope Alexander IV, who in a sermon heard by St. Bonaventure, averred that while Francis was still alive he had seen the miraculous marks with his own eyes." (Englebert)
Click here for the Religion Facts biography of St. Francis.
Pio of Pietrelcina
Pio of Pietrelcina (1887-1968), or "Padre Pio," a Catholic priest from Italy, claims to have received the stigmata in the form of unexplainable physical wounds. In 1911, Pio wrote a letter to his spiritual advisor and said,
"Then last night something happened which I can neither explain nor understand. In the middle of the palms of my hands a red mark appeared, about the size of a penny, accompanied by acute pain in the middle of the red marks. The pain was more pronounced in the middle of the left hand, so much so that I can still feel it. Also under my feet I can feel some pain."
The bloody marks, which were said to have smelled like flowers and perfume, were tended to by doctors, including the personal physician of Pope Benedict XV. The wounds were never infected, lacked the accumulation of fluid in the surrounding tissue, and x-rays taken in 1954, showed no physical abnormalities in Pio's bone structure.
Despite allegations of faking his stigmata, the canonized Pio in 2002 under Pope John Paul II.
Other Stigmatics
The following chart summarizes other notable cases of stigmata in history.
Lived / Died
Ethnicity
Church Date of Stigmata Known For
Saint Catherine of Sienna 1347-1380 Italian Roman Catholic Unknown patron saint of Italy along with St. Francis
Rita of Cascia 1381-1457 Italian Roman Catholic Unknown wound on forehead
Lucia Brocadelli 1476-1544 Italian Roman Catholic February 25, 1496 often in a state of spiritual ecstacy
St. John of God 1495-1550 Portuguese Roman Catholic Unknown patron saint of hospitals, firefighters, alcoholics
Saint Catherine of Ricci 1522-1590 Italian Roman Catholic Unknown wore an iron chain around her neck
Marie of the Incarnation 1566-1618 French Roman Catholic Unknown St. Teresa of Avila appeared to her as an apparition
St. Veronica Giuliani 1660-1727 Italian Roman Catholic 1694 had impression of crown of thorns on her head
Blessed Anne Catherine Emmerich 1774-1824 German Roman Catholic 1813 three physicians were convinced of the genuineness of the marks
St. Gemma Galgani 1878-1903 Italian Roman Catholic June 8, 1899 claims to have spoken with Jesus, Mary, and other saints
Therese Neumann 1898-1962 German Roman Catholic March-November, 1926 is said to have only consumed the Holy Eucharist from 1922-1962
Mary Faustina Kowalska 1905-1938 Polish Roman Catholic Unknown had visions of Jesus in purgatory
Zlatko Sudac 1971-present Croatian Roman Catholic Unknown bears cross on forehead
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